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# GSDRC

Governance, social development, conflict and humanitarian knowledge services

## Sitemaps

- [XML Sitemap](https://gsdrc.org/sitemap.xml): Contains all public & indexable URLs for this website.

## Posts

- [Exploring Climate - Security Risks: GSDRC Researcher Contributes to Global Webinar](https://gsdrc.org/exploring-climate-security-risks-gsdrc-researcher-contributes-to-global-webinar/) - Our researcher took part in the Under Pressure: How Climate Risks Shape Peace and Security webinar on 9 March 2026, joining leading academics, policymakers, and development practitioners to examine the growing intersections between climate change, state fragility, and conflict. At a time when the world is experiencing more conflicts than at any point since 1946,
- [Aid Priorities in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Contexts: GSDRC Researchers Contribute to Global Dialogue](https://gsdrc.org/aid-priorities-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-contexts-gsdrc-researchers-contribute-to-global-dialogue/) - On 16 June 2026, our researchers joined leading experts and policymakers as participants in the Aid Priorities in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Contexts webinar, hosted by K4DD. The event brought together researchers and practitioners to examine one of the most pressing challenges in international development today. With the majority of the world’s extreme poor projected to
- [Public sector reform: learning from South-South exchange](https://gsdrc.org/public-sector-reform-learning-from-south-south-exchange/) - Sameen A. Mohsin Ali and Maja Markovic June 2026 Public sector reform is regarded as a crucial step in enhancing development and growth in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Reform programming is typically designed around the experiences of high-income countries. These experiences inform the recommendations of international financial institutions, such as the World Bank and
- [India-Pakistan conflict∶ what’s the real threat?](https://gsdrc.org/india-pakistan-conflict∶-whats-the-real-threat/) - Iffat Idris, GSDRC, University of Birmingham Pakistan has been in the international news twice so far this year. First, in spring 2025, for renewed conflict with India following a terrorist attack in Indian Administered Kashmir, IAK. Second, from late June to September, for devastating floods across the country. While, on initial reading, these events appear
- [Estonia’s just transition towards climate neutrality](https://gsdrc.org/estonias-just-transition-towards-climate-neutrality/) - Mikail Akhtar, University of Birmingham The Just Transition Mechanism is an initiative launched by the EU to help its member states transition to a climate-neutral economy, specifically targeting the most carbon-affected regions within the EU. Each region will have objectives depending on their needs, which are aimed to be met by 2030 and implemented via
- [Partnership, participation and political action](https://gsdrc.org/partnership-participation-and-political-action-improving-air-quality-in-north-macedonia/) - William Avis, Francis Pope, and Lejla Ademi* In May 2025, researchers from the University of Birmingham and the South East European University (SEEU) organised an exhibition in Tetovo, North Macedonia, of experimental photography that visualises the amount of hazardous fine particulate matter (PM2.5) present in the air. The aim of this exhibition was to render visible
- [Women and Girls in Conflict and Displacement in Muslim Settings](https://gsdrc.org/women-and-girls-in-conflict-and-displacement-in-muslim-settings/) - Displaced women in Muslim settings face layered violence. This briefing urges gender-sensitive, faith-informed aid to protect and empower them.
- [Is state capture coming to the United States? Americans can learn to recognise it from the experiences of other countries](https://gsdrc.org/is-state-capture-coming-to-the-united-states/) - Zenobia Ismail* Corruption involving the state, such as neopatrimonialism, clientelism and crony capitalism, are generally perceived to occur mainly in emerging democracies in the Global South or Eastern Europe. The so-called mature democracies tend to be seen as largely immune from extensive corruption. However, the unprecedented influence of business elites like Elon Musk in the
- [Financing the Africa we want? Reflections from the 2025 Ibrahim Governance Weekend](https://gsdrc.org/financing-the-africa-we-want-reflections-from-the-2025-ibrahim-governance-weekend/) - Arol Dut* The Ibrahim Governance Weekend (IGW) is an annual event organized by the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, with this year’s event held in Marrakech. Under the theme ‘Financing The Africa We Want’, the participants included Now Generation Network members, civil society representatives, current and former African leaders, university professors, among others, who are contributing to

## Pages

- [Home](https://gsdrc.org/)
- [Projects](https://gsdrc.org/projects/) - Welcome to the GSDRC Projects hub — a showcase of research and evidence-driven initiatives that advance understanding and action on global development challenges. Our projects bring together cutting-edge research, international partnerships, and practical insights to support decision-makers, development agencies and practitioners. From rapid evidence assessments that deepen understanding of norms and rights to collaborative programmes
- [Multi-Hazards](https://gsdrc.org/multi-hazard/) - Pages in development
- [Research](https://gsdrc.org/research/) - The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) conducts policy-oriented research on issues of governance and development. It is a research centre of the University of Birmingham, based in the International Development Department. Founded in 2001, the GSDRC has produced a range of research outputs over the years. In particular our expert team has worked
- [Staff profiles](https://gsdrc.org/aboutus/staff-profiles/) - Rachel M. Gisselquist Rachel is Director of the GSDRC and Professor in Governance and Development, University of Birmingham. Prior to joining the UoB in September 2024, she was a Senior Research Fellow with the United Nations University’s World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER) in Helsinki. Her work addresses issues of aid and development cooperation,
- [Publications](https://gsdrc.org/publication-types/) - The GSDRC team produces a variety of types of publications aimed at satisfying the information needs of different readers. Helpdesk reports are rapid-response research reports providing a digest of key research findings, lessons and expert thinking on specific questions from development practitioners and policymakers. Topic guides aim to provide a clear, concise and objective report
- [About us](https://gsdrc.org/aboutus/) - The Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) is a University of Birmingham research centre that conducts policy-oriented research on issues of governance and international development. It is based in the International Development Department in the School of Government. The department has over 50 years' experience undertaking ground-breaking research, teaching, and policy advice on the
- [Services](https://gsdrc.org/services/) - GSDRC is a partnership of research institutes, think-tanks and consultancy organisations with expertise in governance, social development, humanitarian and conflict issues. We provide bespoke research and consultancy services in addition to the regularly updated information resources available on this website. The GSDRC team has been providing high quality knowledge services to international development agencies for
- [International partnerships](https://gsdrc.org/aboutus/international-partnerships/) - FCDO The GSDRC team has provided research support to FCDO since 2001, when the project was known as the Governance Resource Centre (GRC). The scope of the project expanded to become the Governance and Social Development Resource Centre in 2005, and in July 2012, the GSDRC began delivering ‘Professional Evidence and Applied Knowledge Services’ to
- [Terms and conditions](https://gsdrc.org/aboutus/disclaimer/) - Throughout this statement of terms and conditions, the term 'Governance and Social Development Resource Centre' (GSDRC) is used as the term to describe collectively the partners in the GSDRC project, namely the University of Birmingham, the Institute for Development Studies (IDS) at the University of Sussex, and the Humanitarian and Conflict Response Institute (HCRI) at
- [Research Helpdesk](https://gsdrc.org/services/research-helpdesk/) - The research helpdesk provides rapid desk-based research on questions related to governance, social development, conflict and humanitarian topics. We provide a report that synthesises the key issues and literature and includes expert comments from academics and practitioners. Our helpdesk reports are available to download without charge, along with more extensive literature reviews, conflict analyses, topic guides
- [Professional development](https://gsdrc.org/services/professional-development/) - Professional development reading packs provide thought-provoking introductions by international experts to governance, social development, conflict and humanitarian topics and the emerging issues and debates within them. Most packs are accompanied by video presentations. Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summaries were produced weekly or biweekly in 2020 and 2021 to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and
- [Contact Us](https://gsdrc.org/aboutus/contact-us/) - The GSDRC is located in the Muirhead Tower on the main University Edgbaston campus Please use the form below to send us your Enquiry
- [Privacy policy](https://gsdrc.org/aboutus/privacy-policy/) - Storage and use of personal information GSDRC is committed to protecting your privacy. If you have any questions about our privacy policy, please e-mail enquiries@gsdrc.org When you visit the GSDRC website, we use Google Analytics to record non-personally-identifiable information which is reported in aggregate to monitor website usage and improve our website services. We do

## GSDRC Publications

- [Women and Girls' Political Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-and-girls-political-empowerment/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review explores the evidence about the approaches have been used to support girls’ and women political empowerment (WPE), focussing on their effectiveness and constraints. It particularly explores women’s political leadership and quotas in low- and middle-income countries. WPE has improved drastically across the world since the 1700s, however progress has slowed, a huge
- [Successful Collaboration Models in Science, Technology and Innovation Ecosystems](https://gsdrc.org/publications/successful-collaboration-models-in-science-technology-and-innovation-ecosystems/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review collates available evidence on successful collaboration models in science, technology and innovation ecosystems between India and other countries. The review draws upon an eclectic evidence base that includes grey literature, press announcements and Memoranda of Understanding as wall as the outputs of multi- and bilateral development actors. While the evidence base
- [Serious and Organised Crime in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/publications/serious-and-organised-crime-in-tanzania/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review explores the main serious and organised crime (SOC) markets, actors and dynamics in Tanzania. The review draws largely on grey literature, notably reports by think tanks and practitioners. Literature and data is limited due to the illicit nature of the subject. Given this and the limited timeframe for this work, this review
- [Long-Term Positive Impacts of Cash Transfer Programmes in LMICs](https://gsdrc.org/publications/long-term-positive-impacts-of-cash-transfer-programmes-in-lmics/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review looks at the positive long-term impacts of cash transfer programmes in non-humanitarian contexts in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Evidence of long-term impacts is very limited. From reviews of multiple studies/cash programmes, as well as of individual programmes, long-term positive impacts are seen in relation to health and nutrition, education, labour market,
- [K4DD Conflict Evidence and Discourse Summary No.3](https://gsdrc.org/publications/k4dd-conflict-evidence-and-discourse-summary-no-3/) - This K4DD Conflict Evidence and Discourse Summary shares the latest relevant evidence and discourse relating to conflict. The summary is organised by geographical region and covers the period of November 2025.
- [Influence of Political Culture on Development Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/influence-of-political-culture-on-development-outcomes-2/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review looks at the evidence for political culture influencing development outcomes, specifically economic growth. It focuses on two indicators of political culture removed from the revised Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI): satisfaction with democracy (SWD) and consensus building. There is strong correlation between levels of SWD and satisfaction with economic performance; there is also
- [K4DD Conflict Evidence and Discourse Summary No.2](https://gsdrc.org/publications/k4dd-conflict-evidence-and-discourse-summary-no-2/) - This K4DD Conflict Evidence and Discourse Summary aims to signpost readers to the latest relevant evidence and discourse on conflict. This summary covers the period October 2025, and is organised by geographic region.
- [K4DD Conflict Evidence and Discourse Summary December 2025](https://gsdrc.org/publications/k4dd-conflict-evidence-and-discourse-summary-december-2025/) - K4DD’s monthly Conflict Evidence and Discourse Summaries aim to signpost FCDO and others to the latest relevant evidence and discourse on conflict.
- [Innovative Programmes in the Governance Sector](https://gsdrc.org/publications/innovative-programmes-in-the-governance-sector/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review gives examples of effective and innovative governance programmes, which move away from ‘traditional’ donor-driven approaches. The examples have been selected to be diverse in terms of geographic region and aspect of governance (access to justice, citizen participation, accountability, etc.). Other considerations were: large-scale (ideally nationwide) implementation; relevance for other countries (both in
- [Global Leaders in Science, Technology and Innovation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/global-leaders-in-science-technology-and-innovation/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review collates available evidence on “Global Leaders in Science, Technology and Innovation.” The review draws upon an eclectic evidence base that includes grey literature, press announcements as well as policy documents, strategies and national action plans. The assessment of global leaders is based on a rapid review of available evidence and should
- [Case Studies on Progressive Taxation in Low-Income Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/case-studies-on-progressive-taxation-in-low-income-countries/) - This rapid evidence review draws on a set of country case studies to examine how low-income countries have sought to make their tax systems more progressive. It looks at concrete examples of tax reforms aimed at improving fairness in how the tax burden is distributed and at strengthening domestic revenue mobilisation. By examining different policy approaches and
- [Early Warning Systems and Air Quality Forecasting](https://gsdrc.org/publications/early-warning-systems-and-air-quality-forecasting/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review collates available evidence on early warning systems and air quality forecasting. It identifies a diverse and expanding evidence base including academic articles and grey literature (particularly produced by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and UN bodies). The evidence base clearly highlights that predictive capabilities have improved over the last two decades, driven
- [Enablers for the Effective Adoption of AI at the National and City Level](https://gsdrc.org/publications/enablers-for-the-effective-adoption-of-ai-at-the-national-and-city-level/) - This rapid evidence review collates available evidence on key enablers for the effective adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at national and city level in low- and middle-income countries. The review draws upon an expanding evidence base that includes academic and grey literature. The evidence base is evolving with an increasing range of countries and cities rapidly adopting
- [GESI Dimensions of Human Smuggling and Trafficking in East Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gesi-dimensions-of-human-smuggling-and-trafficking-in-east-africa/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review looks at the gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) dimensions of human smuggling and trafficking in five countries in East Africa: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Sudan (in their role as source countries), and Kenya (as a transit/destination country). It finds consistent evidence that women/girls and refugees/IDPs, in particular, as well as diverse minority
- [AI and Rapid Evidence Reviews: Insights from the K4DD Pilot Study](https://gsdrc.org/publications/ai-and-rapid-evidence-reviews-insights-from-the-k4dd-pilot-study/) - The Knowledge for Development and Diplomacy (K4DD) programme was commissioned by the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) Research and Evidence Division to undertake a pilot of artificial intelligence (AI) research tools and their application in the work of the K4DD programme. This pilot explored the application of tools across different types of K4DD outputs
- [Benefits of South South Cooperation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/benefits-of-south-south-cooperation/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review explores the benefits of South-South cooperation, and the different approaches to cooperation. South-South cooperation (SSC) entails a wide range of collaboration among countries of the Global South, promoting collective action in relation to (among others) the economy, politics and the environment, and based on principles such as equality, national sovereignty and mutual
- [Affirmative action around the world Insights from a new dataset (update)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/affirmative-action-around-the-world-insights-from-a-new-dataset-update/) - A global dataset on affirmative action policies in 81 countries, analysing their design, implementation, controversies, and impact across key sectors.
- [Digital Infrastructure Interventions to Address Climate Adaptation and Mitigation Needs](https://gsdrc.org/publications/digital-infrastructure-interventions-to-address-climate-adaptation-and-mitigation-needs/) - This rapid evidence review collates available evidence on digital infrastructure interventions to address climate adaptation and mitigation needs drawing on lessons from across the world to inform the Ethiopian context. The review draws upon an expanding evidence base that includes academic and grey literature. The evidence base is evolving with an increasing range of countries rapidly adopting
- [Inclusive and Collectively Owned Development Co-operation: Reflections from the 2025 Busan Forum](https://gsdrc.org/publications/inclusive-and-collectively-owned-development-co-operation-reflections-from-the-2025-busan-forum/) - It was a pleasure to participate in the 2025 Busan Global Partnership Forum, contributing to Session 2 on country-level ecosystems. I joined the panel as a representative of academia, alongside practitioners and policy makers with deep experience in development co-operation. In this blog, I revisit and reflect further on the key points I raised during that session.
- [What Interventions Impact Migration in the Eastern Neighbourhood and Central Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/what-interventions-impact-migration-in-the-eastern-neighbourhood-and-central-asia/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review explores the evidence about what types of interventions impact migration flows in the Eastern Neighbourhood and Central Asia regions (including both overseas development assistance (ODA) and non-ODA programming). The regions are defined as: Eastern Neighbourhood: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine. Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. While
- [Can Education for out of School Children in South Sudan have Peacebuilding/Social Cohesion Benefits?](https://gsdrc.org/publications/can-education-for-out-of-school-children-in-south-sudan-have-peacebuilding-social-cohesion-benefits/) - This K4DD Rapid Evidence Review explores the potential peacebuilding/social cohesion benefits of targeting out of school children (OOSC) in South Sudan through community-based education activities. It focuses on the targeting methods, activities, and approaches taken by Education in Emergencies (EIE) programmes.
- [Norm diffusion: How global gender norms are adopted in low and middle-income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/norm-diffusion/) - Sithandiwe Mujuru,* William Avis, Nic Cheeseman, Jonathan Fisher, Siân Herbert, Iffat Idris, Zenobia Ismail, Brian Lucas, and David Piela Abstract: As countries move towards achieving the gender equality targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, improving the rigour, relevance, and practical value of evidence on gender norm change is increasingly important. Drawing on a
- [Varieties of state capture](https://gsdrc.org/publications/varieties-of-state-capture/) - Zenobia Ismail Abstract: The literature on state capture is growing and encompasses more countries and contexts. This paper argues that it is time to consider varieties of capture that have different trajectories and outcomes. Two factors, the level of democracy and the strength of institutions, are proposed as starting points for thinking about varieties of
- [After Kabul: Addressing concerns about corruption in donor publics by rechannelling aid](https://gsdrc.org/publications/after-kabul-addressing-concerns-about-corruption-in-donor-publics-by-rechannelling-aid/) - Survey data shows that offering non-governmental aid channels boosts public support for aid to corrupt regimes like Afghanistan.
- [Incorporating Gender Perspective in Peace Operations since 2018](https://gsdrc.org/publications/incorporating-gender-perspective-in-peace-operations-since-2018/) - This rapid literature review collates evidence from academic, policy focussed and grey literature on progress on incorporating gender perspectives in peace operations since 2018, including the deployment of female peacekeepers, and the emerging issues in this field. Key messages that emerge from this review include: The focus on women’s participation in peace processes has led
- [Pathways to Increase Rural Women’s Agency Within Social Protection Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/pathways-to-increase-rural-womens-agency-within-social-protection-programmes/) - This rapid evidence review explores literature on how social protection programmes, particularly cash transfers and public works programmes, can address various dimensions of poverty and wellbeing that rural women face. This review focuses on the economic aspect of women’s livelihoods and wellbeing and examines how the design and implementation of social protection programmes can promote
- [Investment in Refugee Education](https://gsdrc.org/publications/investment-in-refugee-education/) - This Rapid Evidence Review explores how investment in refugee education in Jordan and the wider Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region
- [Scaling plastic reuse models in LMICs](https://gsdrc.org/publications/scaling-plastic-reuse-models-in-lmics/) - Rapid Evidence Review synthesizing the evidence base on the design and scalability of reuse models in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
- [Local Perspectives on Reconciliation in the Western Balkans](https://gsdrc.org/publications/local-perspectives-on-reconciliation-in-the-western-balkans/) - This rapid evidence review explores how reconciliation is perceived and understood by local communities across the Western Balkans.
- [Literature review on state-building](https://gsdrc.org/publications/literature-review-on-state-building/) - This literature review, prepared by Zoe Scott for the UK Department for International Development, provides a comprehensive synthesis of theories, concepts, critiques, and case analyses related to state-building. Drawing on interdisciplinary sources—spanning development studies, international relations, political science, economics, and security studies—the review highlights the complex, contested nature of state-building as both a concept and
- [Post-2015 governance and peace indicators](https://gsdrc.org/publications/post-2015-governance-and-peace-indicators/) - Please identify (a) existing indicators and (b) literature proposing possible new indicators that could be used to measure the targets in illustrative goals 10 and 11 of High Level Panel Report on Post 2015 Development Agenda. Please provide an assessment of the indicators in terms of (i) the extent to which there is evidence that they are conceptually linked to the goal and (ii) the practical considerations of measuring the indicators as a basis for a global framework.
- [The Impact of Conflict on Women’s Voice and Participation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-conflict-on-womens-voice-and-participation/) - Conflict has usually reduced the voice of the less powerful. This has generally included women. Is this effect universal?
- [Participatory methods for community consultation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/participatory-methods-for-community-consultation/) - Please identify literature outlining the details of specific participatory methods and tools for community consultation that may be suitable for use by a bilateral aid agency in country strategy-level consultations (rather than project level). Data will be collected on people’s lived experience of poverty, as well as their views of poverty reduction efforts (both to date and into the future). Please focus on sources that include details of the practicalities: what kind of expertise is required to run these processes, how participants are identified, what the steps involved are and what kind of data is collected.
- [Tools for participatory analysis of poverty, social exclusion and vulnerability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/tools-for-participatory-analysis-of-poverty-social-exclusion-and-vulnerability/) - Review a selection of quantitative and qualitative tools and methods used by development agencies to undertake micro-level participatory analysis on poverty, social exclusion, or vulnerability. Identify the scope and intended application of these tools, the skills required to use them, and any lessons learned.
- [Community Monitoring of Service Delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-monitoring-of-service-delivery/) - Please provide examples of community (participatory) monitoring and evaluation projects for holding government accountable for service delivery and expenditure management.
- [Political Economy of Sierra Leone](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-sierra-leone/) - Please identify and synthesise current political economy literature on Sierra Leone.
- [Development and Conflict Prevention in Nigeria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/development-and-conflict-prevention-in-nigeria/) - Please identify any recent research or cost-benefit analysis on the use of development interventions to prevent conflict with a particular focus on Nigeria.
- [Lessons From Interventions That Address Livelihoods and Cross-border Conflict Systems](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-interventions-that-address-livelihoods-and-cross-border-conflict-systems/) - This rapid literature review brings together lessons from interventions that address the link between livelihood pressures and cross-border conflict systems. There is limited literature on this exact question, thus, this paper draws together findings from: the general livelihoods literature; literature on livelihoods programming in fragile and conflict affected states (FCAS) related to conflict systems; the
- [Responses to conflict, irregular migration,  human trafficking and illicit flows along  transnational pathways in West Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/responses-to-conflict-irregular-migration-human-trafficking-and-illicit-flows-along-transnational-pathways-in-west-africa/) - This paper explores the links between conflict, irregular migration, human trafficking and other illicit flows along transnational pathways in West Africa – focusing on Niger, Nigeria, Mali, Burkina Faso and Libya as well as the responses to these. The West Africa region is the site of numerous intrastate conflicts, which have transnational dimensions. Even were
- [Cross-border pastoral mobility and cross-border conflict in Africa – patterns and policy responses](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cross-border-pastoral-mobility-and-cross-border-conflict-in-africa-patterns-and-policy-responses/) - Pastoralism is estimated to be the main livelihood of 268 million people in Africa, and is critically dependent on mobility which facilitates the use of transient resources in areas of high and seasonal rainfall, ecological, and nutritional variability. These landscapes are not confined within state boundaries but require cross-border movement. This rapid literature review collates
- [Drivers, Barriers and Opportunities of E-waste Management in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/drivers-barriers-and-opportunities-of-e-waste-management-in-africa/) - Population growth, increasing prosperity and changing consumer habits globally are increasing demand for consumer electronics. Further to this, rapid changes in technology, falling prices and consumer appetite for better products have exacerbated e-waste management challenges and seen millions of tons of electronic devices become obsolete. This rapid literature review collates evidence from academic, policy focussed
- [LGBT rights and inclusion in Small  Island Developing States (SIDS)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lgbt-rights-and-inclusion-in-small-island-developing-states-sids/) - This review looks at the extent to which LGBT rights are provided for under law in a range of SIDS, and the record on implementation/enforcement, as well as approaches to promote LGBT rights and inclusion. SIDS covered are those in the Caribbean, Pacific, and Atlantic-Indian Ocean-South China Sea (AIS) regions. The review draws on a
- [COVID-19, governance, and conflict: emerging impacts and future evidence needs](https://gsdrc.org/publications/covid-19-governance-and-conflict-emerging-impacts-and-future-evidence-needs/) - This paper reviews emerging evidence of the impact of COVID-19 on governance and conflict, using a “governance and conflict first” approach in contrast to other research and synthesis on COVID-19 in the social sciences that tends to be structured through a public health lens. It largely focuses on evidence on low- and middle-income countries but
- [Donor Support to Electoral Cycles](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-support-to-electoral-cycles/) - This rapid literature review explains the stages of an election cycle, and how donors provide support to electoral cycles. It draws mainly on policy guidance websites and papers due to the questions of this review and the level of analysis taken (global-level, donor-level). It focuses on publications from the last five years, and/or current/forthcoming donor
- [Intersecting social inequalities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/intersecting-social-inequalities/) - Analysis of intersecting social inequalities is key to effective, inclusive interventions in crisis settings. Gender equality and social inclusion analytical frameworks provide key research questions and participatory methodologies which seek to understand: Who is excluded? How are they excluded? Why are they excluded? What can be done to address this and support greater inclusion? There
- [Donor Support for the Human Rights of LGBT+](https://gsdrc.org/publications/__trashed/) - This rapid review synthesises evidence on the bilateral and multilateral donors promoting and protecting the human rights of LGBT+ people on a global scale. It focusses on those donors that have policies, implementation plans and programmes on LGBT+ rights. This review also examines the evidence on the impact of their work. The bilateral donors
- [Interventions to Address Discrimination against LGBTQi Persons](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-to-address-discrimination-against-lgbtqi-persons/) - Most of the programmes and interventions that are mentioned in the literature address LGBTQi rights by ensuring that men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender people have access to healthcare that is funded by international aid. The other main conduit of support is to use aid funds to provide financial and technical support
- [Documentation of survivors of gender-based violence (GBV)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/documentation-of-survivors-of-gender-based-violence-gbv/) - Documentation of gender-based violence (GBV) cases is important in allowing survivors to access support services and secure justice, and – on a wider scale – for analysis and improvement in GBV responses. GBV documentation carries significant risks for survivors and others, and hence must be taken with care. Key principles include: do no harm, take
- [Increasing Birth Registration for Children of Marginalised Groups in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/increasing-birth-registration-for-children-of-marginalised-groups-in-pakistan/) - This review looks at approaches to promote birth registration among marginalised groups, in order to inform programming in Pakistan. It draws on a mixture of academic and grey literature, in particular reports by international development organizations. While there is extensive literature on rates of birth registration and the barriers to this, and consensus on approaches
- [Maintaining basic state functions and service delivery during escalating crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/maintaining-basic-state-functions-and-service-delivery-during-escalating-crises/) - This rapid literature review explores how to maintain essential state functions and basic service delivery during escalating conflict situations. It draws on literature and ideas from various overlapping agendas including development and humanitarian nexus; development, humanitarian and peacebuilding nexus (the “triple nexus”); fragile states; state-building; conflict sensitivity; resilience; and conflict prevention and early warning. There
- [Workplace-based Learning and Youth Employment in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/workplace-based-learning-and-youth-employment-in-africa/) - Workplace-based learning is a supply-side approach to youth employment that includes practical or on-the-job training that is usually provided through an apprenticeship, internship, learnership , work placement or other practical training component of a vocational education or training programme. For the workplace-based learning approach to be effective, it requires collaboration among those who provide skills
- [Interaction Between Food Prices and Political Instability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interaction-between-food-prices-and-political-instability/) - This report reviews the literature on links between international food prices and political instability (including protests, riots and social unrest). The literature on food prices and protests, riots, unrest, or violent incidents consists mainly of peer-reviewed scholarly articles that utilise econometric modeling. Some early studies examined the links between international food prices and political instability
- [War Economy in North East Nigeria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/war-economy-in-north-east-nigeria/) - This rapid literature review collates academic and grey literature pertaining to the war economy in North-East Nigeria. The review finds the evidence base on this subject to be limited and disjointed. There are few regional analyses focussed on this issue, with those that exist approaching the subject from different thematic or sectoral positions. Sub-national (i.e.
- [Role of Faith and Belief in Environmental Engagement and Action in MENA Region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/role-of-faith-and-belief-in-environmental-engagement-and-action-in-mena-region/) - Almost all religions reflect on the creation of the universe, or universes, in different forms and with varying degrees of clarity or detail. Common across most religions is an agreement that “creation” is an act of God and should be treated as such. This rapid literature review collates evidence on the role of faith and
- [Areas and Population Groups in Pakistan Most Exposed to Combined Effects of Climate Change, Food Insecurity and COVID-19](https://gsdrc.org/publications/areas-and-population-groups-in-pakistan-most-exposed-to-combined-effects-of-climate-change-food-insecurity-and-covid-19/) - This rapid review looks at areas and population groups in Pakistan most exposed to the combined effects of climate change and natural disasters, food insecurity and malnutrition, and COVID-19. The review draws on a mixture of academic and grey literature, including reports by development organisations. While considerable information was found about the diverse effects of
- [Water in Sustainable Agriculture Standards](https://gsdrc.org/publications/water-in-sustainable-agriculture-standards/) - Sustainable agricultural standards, hereafter standards, is a broad term encompassing certification schemes, tools, and programmes. The International Trade Centre’s Sustainability Standards Map includes 166 agricultural standards. However, there is a smaller number of prominent standards that are popularly used by major retailers or for particular commodities. Two studies looking at how water is considered in
- [Promotion of Freedom of Religion or Belief](https://gsdrc.org/publications/promotion-of-freedom-of-religion-or-belief/) - Freedom of religion or belief (FoRB) is a fundamental human right. However, the general global the trend in recent years is towards increased FoRB violations by both government and non-government actors. Notable exceptions are Sudan and Uzbekistan, which have shown significant improvement in promoting FoRB, while smaller-scale positive developments have been seen in a number
- [Trends in Conflict and Stability in the Indo-Pacific](https://gsdrc.org/publications/trends-in-conflict-and-stability-in-the-indo-pacific/) - This report looks at trends in conflict and instability in the Indo-Pacific region, focusing on climate change effects and a number of civil liberties. The Indo-Pacific region is both highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and already facing significant security risks and challenges, many of which will be exacerbated by the impact of
- [Conflict analysis of The Philippines](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-the-philippines/) - This rapid literature review examines the main conflict and instability drivers in the Philippines. Key findings include: Conflict profile  The conflict has been a longstanding feature of the Philippines, with two long-running insurgencies, and a number of other types of conflict and violence. The current situation is complex and dynamic, with an “increasingly fragmented
- [Gender, countering violent extremism and women, peace and security in Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-countering-violent-extremism-and-women-peace-and-security-in-kenya/) - Kenya ranks 109 out of 153 countries in the Global Gender Gap Report 2020, with a score of 0.671. There are significant inequalities between males and females in education attainment, health outcomes, representation in parliament, and labour force participation. This Factsheet outlines some of the top-line information on gender, countering violent extremism and women, peace
- [Border Disputes and Micro-Conflicts in South and Southeast Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/border-disputes-and-micro-conflicts-in-south-and-southeast-asia/) - This rapid literature review presents the key literature on border disputes and micro-conflicts in South and Southeast Asia. The focus is on recent ideas that are prevalent in literature from post2010. The literature review draws on both academic and grey literature. The report finds that conflicts have become more complex and protracted often linked to
- [Monitoring Air Quality in Low- Income and Lower Middle-Income Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/monitoring-air-quality-in-low-income-and-lower-middle-income-countries/) - This rapid literature review surveys academic and grey literature on air quality monitoring in low-income (LICs) and lower-middle-income countries (LMICs). It draws heavily on three key sources of information. The World Bank (Awe et al., 2017) led report ‘Filling the Gaps: Improving Measurement of Ambient Air Quality in Low and Middle-Income Countries’, the Health Effects
- [Interventions in LICs and LMICs to improve air quality and/or mitigate its impacts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-in-lics-and-lmics-to-improve-air-quality-and-or-mitigate-its-impacts/) - This rapid literature review summarises evidence on air quality interventions in LICs and LMICs to improve air quality and/or mitigate its impacts. The review found limited evidence derived from such countries and instead draws on evidence from reviews and compilations compiled by bodies such as Public Health England (PHE) and the World Health Organisation (WHO).
- [Donor Support for Climate Change Initiatives in the Middle East and North Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-support-for-climate-change-initiatives-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/) - Donors in the Middle East and North Africa’s (MENA) climate and environment space include both bilateral donors such as France and Germany, multilateral development banks and multilateral climate funds. France and Germany are key bilateral donors to the region, supporting both single country and regional programmes. Many donors, including the EU, France, Germany, the Netherlands,
- [Political and social analysis for development policy and practice: An overview of five approaches](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-and-social-analysis-for-development-policy-and-practice-an-overview-of-five-approaches/) - Political economy (PE) analysis is concerned with the interaction of political and economic processes in a society: the distribution of power and wealth between different groups and individuals, and the processes that create, sustain and transform these relationships over time. PE analysis elucidates how power and resources are distributed and contested in different contexts, and
- [Doing research in fragile contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/doing-research-in-fragile-contexts/) - Research is critical to understanding and addressing the problems seen in fragile and conflict affected states (FCAS). The scale and impact of these problems is staggering: in 2016 about 1.8 billion people were living in fragile contexts but this is predicted to grow to 2.3 billion (28% of total world population) by 2030; poverty is
- [Gender and countering violent extremism (CVE) in the Kenya Mozambique region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-and-countering-violent-extremism-cve-in-the-kenyamozambique-region/) - This evidence synthesis drew on a mixture of academic and grey literature. While the literature on Kenyan women and Al-Shabaab was quite extensive (albeit with gaps, e.g. on returnees), nothing was found on women and Ansar al-Sunnah/violent extremist groups operating in northeastern Mozambique and the Mozambique-Tanzania cross-border region. This report should be read in conjunction
- [The Development Impact of Chinese Development Investments in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-development-impact-of-chinese-development-investments-in-africa/) - This Emerging Issues report examines a number of popular narratives about the impacts of Chinese investment on economic development in Africa. Popular narratives include Chinese infrastructure investments that have weak links to growth, Chinese investment leads to limited job creation in host countries, and Chinese development projects lead to environmental degradation (Bradsher, 2019). Key Findings:
- [Prevalence of health impacts related to exposure to poor air quality among children in Low and Lower Middle-Income Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/prevalence-of-health-impacts-related-to-exposure-to-poor-air-quality-among-children-in-low-and-lower-middle-income-countries/) - This rapid review provides an assessment of the contemporary health impacts arising from the household (indoor) and ambient (outdoor) air pollution exposure in low income (LIC) and lower-middle-income countries (LMICs), with a specific focus upon children aged under 5 years. The review synthesises findings of key systematic reviews, as well as international and national reports,
- [Risk of Capital Flight Due to a Better Understanding of Climate Change](https://gsdrc.org/publications/risk-of-capital-flight-due-to-a-better-uunderstanding-of-climate-change/) - The physical risks of climate change, including both gradual global warming and an increase in extreme weather events, are likely to cause increasing financial and economic losses. Lower and middle-income countries may be more vulnerable to physical risks due to their reliance on climate-sensitive economic sectors and their limited capacity to absorb economic losses. However,
- [Institutions, approaches and lessons for coherent and integrated conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/publications/institutions-approaches-and-lessons-for-coherent-and-integrated-conflict-analysis/) - This rapid literature review explores the new institutional structures and approaches that have emerged to ensure that conflict analysis and action in fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS) is coherent and integrated across the many actors that now engage in this broadened field of work. This query focuses on the institutions and approaches of, and lessons
- [Lessons for coherent and integrated conflict analysis from multilateral actors](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-for-coherent-and-integrated-conflict-analysis-from-multilateral-actors/) - This rapid literature review collates lessons from multilateral organisations on their efforts to conduct and apply conflict analysis in fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS) in a coherent and integrated way. It contains substantial information about the European Union (EU) and the United Nations (UN) and much less about the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and
- [Place-based approaches to aid investment and development impact](https://gsdrc.org/publications/place-based-approaches-to-aid-investment-and-development-impact/) - This rapid literature review surveys the available academic and grey literature on place o area-based approaches to aid investment and its role in the delivery of effective and coherent development impact1. Place- or area-based approaches to aid investment and development refer to a broad array of interventions under which a place or area is identified
- [The use of fossil fuels in the Middle East and North Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-use-of-fossil-fuels-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/) - This rapid literature review collates evidence from academic and grey literature on the use of fossil fuels in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). MENA, for much of its recent history, has been known for its energy wealth. The region is, however, significantly diverse, not only in terms of economic and political structures, but
- [Coping mechanisms in South Sudan in relation to different types of shock](https://gsdrc.org/publications/coping-mechanisms-in-south-sudan-in-relation-to-different-types-of-shock/) - This rapid evidence review provides an assessment of negative and positive coping mechanisms of different groups (based on wealth (below the poverty line/elites), gender, age, (dis)abilities, geographies (rural/urban), and ethnicity of people in South Sudan in relation to different types of shock. It draws predominantly on a range of grey literature from multinational and bilateral
- [The COVID-19 Pandemic and Response on Violent Extremist Recruitment and Radicalisation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-covid-19-pandemic-and-response-on-violent-extremist-recruitment-and-radicalisation/) - This rapid evidence review provides evidence on the potential impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and response on violent extremist recruitment and radicalisation. It draws on a mixture of academic and grey literature from multinational and bilateral institutions as well as nongovernment organisations (NGOs) and think tanks. Given the rapidly developing global context, it also draws
- [Developing More Inclusive Politics Through Sub-national Electoral Processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/developing-more-inclusive-politics-through-sub-national-electoral-processes/) - In post-conflict environments, the international community plays an important role in supporting successful planning, delivery, and embedding of elections within a wider context of support to political systems and democratisation. This rapid review provides an overview of lessons on developing more inclusive politics through sub-national electoral processes in recent academic, policy, and grey literature. The
- [Key Drivers of Modern Slavery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/key-drivers-of-modern-slavery/) - This rapid literature review provides evidence of key drivers of modern slavery. It draws on a mixture of academic and grey literature from multinational and bilateral institutions as well as non-government organisations (NGOs) and think tanks. Given the rapidly developing global context, it also draws on emerging opinions from blog posts and journalistic reports to
- [Urban Expansion in Nigeria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urban-expansion-in-nigeria/) - This rapid literature review surveys the available literature on urban expansion in Nigerian cities/towns over the coming decades. It presents information on population growth, geographic expansion and urban density to illustrate that urban centres in Nigeria are expanding at different rates which are dependent on the aspect of urbanisation considered. Rapid urbanisation is a global
- [Challenges Religious Minorities Face in Accessing Humanitarian Assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/challenges-religious-minorities-face-in-accessing-humanitarian-assistance/) - This rapid literature review, surveys evidence regarding the challenges specific religious minorities face in accessing humanitarian assistance. This review acknowledges that there remains a paucity of research on the presence, scale and diversity of religious groups, experiences, values, motivations and engagements in a range of humanitarian contexts and how these intersect to mediate access to
- [Water Finance and Nature-based solutions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/water-finance-and-nature-based-solutions/) - Nature-based solutions (NbS) for water security can address a number of challenges simultaneously and deliver co-benefits. Broadly, NbS protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural and modified ecosystems to address societal challenges (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016). NbS approaches for water security include source water protection, watershed management, sustainable drainage systems, and wetlands restoration and construction. By
- [Impact of COVID-19 on Child Labour in South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-covid-19-on-child-labour-in-south-asia/) - The COVID-19 pandemic has not (to date) hit South Asia as badly in terms of infections and deaths as some other parts of the world (notably Europe). However, it is having a profound negative economic impact on the region. Experience of previous epidemics/financial crises suggests that the current crisis will lead to a rise in
- [Nature-based solutions and water security](https://gsdrc.org/publications/nature-based-solutions-and-water-security/) - Water security is important for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development. It involves safeguarding sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable water as well as protection against water risks. Achieving water security depends on a number of elements including natural processes, infrastructure, institutions, and governance. Water insecurity is increasing and nature-based solutions (NbS) can
- [Faith-based organisations and current development debates](https://gsdrc.org/publications/faith-based-organisations-and-current-development-debates/) - This report provides a brief synthesis of the role of faith-based organisations in civil society. Faith-based organisations (FBOs) became more prominent in donor agendas, international development and academic research in the 1990s. There has been an increase in the number of FBOs from the 1980s onwards in response to neo-liberal policies in many countries, which
- [Conflict analysis of Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-bangladesh/) - This rapid literature review examines the root causes and dynamics of conflict and (in)stability in Bangladesh. Key findings include: Conflict Profile: Bangladesh has a violent political culture, and has experienced widespread political violence, especially around elections – this is a feature of its increasingly authoritarian democracy Social, ethnic, and religious conflicts have flared when exploited
- [Cross-border drivers of conflict across Sudan, Egypt, and Jordan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cross-border-conflict-driversbreaks-across-sudan-egypt-and-jordan/) - Conflict drivers/breaks often affect multiple countries simultaneously. Moreover, conflict drivers such as violent extremism; migration; and goods trafficking are often interlinked (Browne, 2013, p. 1). Migration and trafficking often follow the same geographical routes through multiple countries, and can also involve weapons smuggling for extremist groups. Moreover, extremists’ movements across borders can frequently interact with
- [Water security beyond Covid-19](https://gsdrc.org/publications/water-security-beyond-covid-19/) - Strengthening water security is essential for preventing and combatting future pandemics. Measures to supress the Covid-19 pandemic, including hand-washing, selfisolating and lockdowns assume that societies, communities and households have sustainable access to acceptable amounts of adequate quality water. However, across developing countries, water insecurity is increasing, with the poorest and most vulnerable particularly at risk.
- [Mitigating the economic impacts of epidemics and financial crises: Focus on middle-income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mitigating-the-economic-impacts-of-epidemics-and-financial-crises-focus-on-middle-income-countries/) - As governments around the world seek to respond rapidly and appropriately to the impacts of COVID-19, it can be beneficial to look back at responses to similar global systemic shocks. This can reveal relevant lessons, ranging from public health measures to policies for reducing the economic costs. This rapid literature review looks at lessons learned
- [Impacts of Covid-19 on Inclusive Economic Growth in Middle-income Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impacts-of-covid-19-on-inclusive-economic-growth-in-middle-income-countries/) - Covid-19 is likely to cause much greater economic damage than any recent disease outbreak or economic crisis (Shretta, 2020). As of April 2020, the IMF is forecasting that the global economy is likely to contract by -3% in 2020 (IMF, 2020c, p. 1) and that ‘the cumulative loss to global GDP over 2020 and 2021
- [Water for the urban poor and Covid-19](https://gsdrc.org/publications/water-for-the-urban-poor-and-covid-19/) - Water, sanitation and hygiene are vital for the suppression and treatment of Covid-19. To maintain and increase access to water for the urban poor and other groups during the crisis, eleven African governments have announced various forms of free water. This includes governments paying users bills in some contexts (e.g. Ghana) and provision of water
- [Infrastructure Project Failures in Colombia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/infrastructure-project-failures-in-colombia/) - Due to poor civil engineering practices, corruption, natural disasters, the sabotage of infrastructure associated with Colombia’s armed conflict, and the politicisation of large infrastructure projects, Colombia is spending a significant amount annually on improving and rebuilding relatively new infrastructure. As the country’s population and economy continue to grow, so do its economic loses. This rapid
- [Impact of Education Interventions for Working Children](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-education-interventions-for-working-children/) - Recent global estimates indicate that 152 million children – 64 million girls and 88 million boys – are engaged in child labour across the world (ILO 2017b: 8). According to these same estimates, 71% of child labourers work in the agricultural sector and 69% in unpaid work within their own family. Nearly half of all
- [Effectiveness of Donor Support to Women in Formal Political Leadership - Annotated Bibliography](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-donor-support-to-women-in-formal-political-leadership-annotated-bibliography/) - Domestic and external pressures to increase the number of women in formal politics have started to bear fruit over the past 20 years. Overall, this has led to a greater presence of women in elected, appointed, and recruited positions in public bodies, and to their rise to senior positions in these settings, to a lesser
- [Effectiveness of Aid Interventions to Strengthen Collective Action that Facilitate Women's Political Empowerment - Annotated Bibliography](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-aid-interventions-to-strengthen-collective-action-that-facilitate-womens-political-empowerment-annotated-bibliography/) - There is significant rigorous evidence that collective action can play an important role in facilitating women's political engagement, and in advancing women's empowerment in formal and informal politics, in low-, middle- and high-income countries. Certainly, collective action does not automatically lead to engagement and empowerment. Further, it does not always lead to all aspects of
- [Links Between Education and Child Labour](https://gsdrc.org/publications/links-between-education-and-child-labour/) - According to recent estimates, approximately 152 million children were engaged in child labour globally in 2016 (ILO 2017a: 5). There are many forms of children's work, involving different levels of demand and danger. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) defines child labour as work that is detrimental to children, by depriving them of their childhood, their
- [Effectiveness of Aid Interventions to Strengthen Collective Action that Facilitate Women's Political Empowerment - Narrative Review](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-aid-interventions-to-strengthen-collective-action-that-facilitate-womens-political-empowerment-narrative-review/) - Collective action can play an important role in facilitating women’s political engagement, and in advancing women’s empowerment in formal and informal politics, in low-, middle- and high-income countries, as shown by significant rigorous evidence. Yet, there is only limited and patchy rigorous evidence about how aid interventions can strengthen collective action to facilitate women’s political
- [Effectiveness of Aid Interventions to Strengthen Collective Action that Facilitate Women's Political Empowerment - Executive Summary](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-aid-interventions-to-strengthen-collective-action-that-facilitate-womens-political-empowerment-executive-summary/) - Collective action can play an important role in facilitating women's political engagement, and in advancing women's empowerment in formal and informal politics, in low-, middle-, and high-income countries, as shown by significant rigorous evidence. This executive summary summarises a rapid review which synthesises key findings on how aid interventions can strengthen collective action to facilitate
- [Effectiveness of Donor Support to Women in Formal Political Leadership - Executive Summary](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-donor-support-to-women-in-formal-political-leadership-executive-summary/) - Pressures to increase the number of women in formal politics have started to bear fruit over the past 20 years. This has led to a greater presence of women in elected, appointed, and recruited positions in public bodies, and (to a lesser extent) to their rise to senior positions in these settings. This executive summary
- [Legislation and Policy Addressing Inequality and Redistribution in Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/publications/legislation-and-policy-addressing-inequality-and-redistribution-in-rwanda/) - This report is one of three related K4D helpdesk reports on inequality in Rwanda. The other two examine links between poverty, inequality and exclusion (Carter 2018) and provide data on inequalities (Orrnert 2018). This review summarises key national policies and legislation related to inequality and redistribution in Rwanda. Where available, this review provides insights into
- [Joint Operating Principles among Humanitarian Actors to Improve Access](https://gsdrc.org/publications/joint-operating-principles-among-humanitarian-actors-to-improve-access/) - This six-day helpdesk review provides an overview of academic, policy and practitioner literature that explores lessons or evidence from efforts to establish joint operating principles agreed by humanitarian actors to improve humanitarian access and factors that contributed to their success or failure? While there is some general guidance on strategies to address access constraints and
- [Evidence on Inequalities in Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-inequalities-in-rwanda/) - Inequality refers to disparities between individuals (vertical inequalities) or groups (horizontal inequalities) in areas such as income, wealth, education, health, nutrition, space, politics and social identity (Rohwerder 2016). Intersecting inequalities occur when people face inequality in multiple, overlapping, spheres of their lives. Inequality is most commonly understood as either inequality of outcomes (differences in what
- [Lessons from Local Governance Programmes in South Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-local-governance-programmes-in-south-sudan/) - Donor-funded (governance) programming in South Sudan has been hampered by numerous challenges, notably renewed conflict and economic crisis. The literature points to a general failure by donors to appreciate these challenges and to donors’ overestimating state capacity, leading to overambitious programmes. Donors are urged to be flexible, integrate political and development interventions, and work through
- [Local Governance in South Sudan: Overview](https://gsdrc.org/publications/local-governance-in-south-sudan-overview/) - The system of local governance in South Sudan (independent since 2011) comprises both formal state structures and traditional authorities. The three tier local government structure faces significant capacity and resource constraints – manifested in weak effectiveness - which are being exacerbated by the government’s decision to increase the number of states in South Sudan from
- [A Mapping of Larger Youth Employment Programmes in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/a-mapping-of-larger-youth-employment-programmes-in-developing-countries/) - There is a robust literature on youth employment that spans academic and grey literature. This rapid literature review combines academic and grey literature to identify larger youth employment programmes in developing countries. The review identifies the countries, which have a national youth policy. There is no literature that assesses the sustainability of national youth policies.
- [Cost-Effectiveness in Humanitarian Aid: Localisation Programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cost-effectiveness-in-humanitarian-aid-localisation-programming/) - The localisation of humanitarian aid is a “collective process by the different stakeholders of the humanitarian system (donors, United Nations agencies, NGOs) which aims to return local actors (local authorities or civil society) to the centre of the response with a greater, more central role” (Groupe URD, 2017). The idea of promoting localisation in humanitarian
- [Cost-Effectiveness in Humanitarian Aid and Development: Resilience Programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cost-effectiveness-in-humanitarian-aid-and-development-resilience-programming/) - The results of the review show a gap in the literature in terms of providing conclusive evidence/data and analysis of the cost-effectiveness of resilience-related responses. Most of the reports, papers, briefs and notes that were reviewed tend to make normative assertions as to how important is to provide humanitarian assistance early enough and to direct
- [Cost-Effectiveness in Humanitarian Work: Integration of Displaced Persons into Host Community Services](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cost-effectiveness-in-humanitarian-work-integration-of-displaced-persons-into-host-community-services/) - With unprecedented numbers of displaced persons around the world, the humanitarian system is facing huge financial pressures. The international community provides support (about US$22 billion in 2015) mainly through humanitarian programs, but the World Bank describes the current model as critically flawed (WBG 2017, p. 12) because forcibly displaced persons have to be sustained by
- [Cost-Effectiveness in Humanitarian Work: Preparedness, Pre-financing and Early Action](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cost-effectiveness-in-humanitarian-work-preparedness-pre-financing-and-early-action/) - Rigorous evidence of the cost-effectiveness of investments in disaster preparedness is limited. However, overall the available data points to disaster preparedness leading to clear reductions in both humanitarian costs and losses due to crises (lost lives, assets, livelihoods). While there is general consensus on the importance of preparedness, significant challenges mean it still accounts for
- [Cost-Effectiveness in Humanitarian Work: the Promotion of International Humanitarian Law](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cost-effectiveness-in-humanitarian-work-the-promotion-of-international-humanitarian-law/) - Lack of compliance with international humanitarian law (IHL), which can result in unlawful deaths, destruction and impediments to humanitarian relief operations, is a tremendous humanitarian challenge (Akande and Gillard, 2017; Kremte, 2017; Pejic, 2016). In order to achieve the main goal of IHL - to protect persons affected by violence and minimise human suffering –
- [Cost-Effectiveness in Humanitarian Work: Cash-Based Programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cost-effectiveness-in-humanitarian-work-cash-based-programming/) - There is consensus in the literature that giving people cash in humanitarian contexts provides greater choice and dignity while at the same time stimulating local markets. In comparison to in-kind approaches, cash emerges as more efficient to deliver and – depending on the particularities of a given context – it can also be equally or
- [Effectiveness of Donor Support to Women in Formal Political Leadership-Narrative Review](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-donor-support-to-women-in-formal-political-leadership-narrative-review-2/) - This narrative review synthesises a selection of key evidence based on a rapid, non-systematic literature review (this makes it subject to limitations).The evidence base offers no comparative rankings on which types of interventions, and which specific interventions, have been more effective. Overall, it shows that the interventions most frequently used by aid actors, including donors,
- [What is Civil Society, its Role and Value in 2018?](https://gsdrc.org/publications/what-is-civil-society-its-role-and-value-in-2018/) - Civil society is widely understood as the space outside the family, market and state (WEF, 2013). What constitutes civil society has developed and grown since the term first became popular in the 1980s and it now signifies a wide range of organised and organic groups including nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), trade unions, social movements, grassroots organisations,
- [Implementation Frameworks for International Summits or Conferences](https://gsdrc.org/publications/implementation-frameworks-for-international-summits-or-conferences/) - International summits and conferences bring together a variety of stakeholders including high-level government actors, to discuss and agree on resolutions to tackle global problems. However, the extent to which the resolutions are implemented varies. Likewise, the extent to which governments and other stakeholders can be held accountable for the commitments that they make at the
- [Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/water-sanitation-and-hygiene-services-in-pakistan/) - Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services varies across and between Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and Punjab Provinces. The Government of KP’s 2017 Health Survey found that 89% of households have access to improved water sources, and 85% have accessed to improved sanitation (Government of KP, 2017). In contrast, according to the Government of the
- [Water Management/Governance Systems in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/water-management-governance-systems-in-pakistan/) - Provincial governments in Pakistan are responsible for water and sanitation and in 2001 devolved responsibility for service delivery to local governments. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and Punjab provinces, a number of institutional actors are involved in water management and governance. The provincial Public Health Engineering Departments (PHEDs) install drinking water supply projects in rural areas
- [Rebuilding Pastoralist Livelihoods During and After Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rebuilding-pastoralist-livelihoods-during-and-after-conflict/) - The impacts of different approaches to protecting and promoting/rebuilding pastoralist livelihoods during and after conflict is mixed, complicated by the evolving nature of the conflict (including its different forms), the range of pastoral groups operating across African contexts and the supranational nature of their activities. This rapid review synthesises findings from a rigorous academic, practitioner,
- [Cash-Based Initiatives for Refugees in Jordan: Annotated Bibliography](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cash-based-initiatives-for-refugees-in-jordan-annotated-bibliography/) - The available literature tells us little about the effectiveness of targeting of cash-based initiatives (CBIs) for refugees in Jordan. However, it suggests there are positive impacts on food security for refugees, their ability to pay for rent and utilities and their psycho-social well-being, as well as some reduction in resort to negative coping strategies. The
- [Rule of Law Challenges in the Western Balkans](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rule-of-law-challenges-in-the-western-balkans/) - The rule of law, in its most basic form, is based on the principles that society is governed openly and fairly according to widely known and accepted rules; that no one is above the law, including those in authority; and that justice is accessible to all (Bara and Bara, 2017, 24-25; MavrikosAdamou, 2014; Memeti, 2014).
- [Benefits of STEM Education](https://gsdrc.org/publications/benefits-of-stem-education/) - The literature concurs with the general view that science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education is necessary to facilitate economic development, international competitiveness and job creation. However, the literature does not specify the particular benefits of STEM education in developing countries since the consensus is that STEM education is generally lacking in these countries. Moreover, the
- [Natural Resources Management Strategies in the Sahel](https://gsdrc.org/publications/natural-resources-management-strategies-in-the-sahel/) - Natural resources, both renewable and extractives are extremely important to the livelihoods and economies of the Sahel (defined as Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger). For example, agriculture accounts for over 30% of Mali’s GDP and cotton and gold account for over 80% of exports (IMF, 2018, p. 6). There is potential for conflict
- [Civil Society and Accountability in Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-society-and-accountability-in-rwanda/) - Donors became interested in government accountability after the release of the World Development Report in 2004. Subsequently, the World Bank and international donors supported interventions that were designed to increase transparency which in turn was expected to promote accountability in developing countries. The limited evidence from impact assessments of such interventions steered by Civil Society
- [Humanitarian Access, Protection, and Diplomacy in Besieged Areas](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-access-protection-and-diplomacy-in-besieged-areas/) - This rapid literature review examines the lessons learned in terms of providing humanitarian access and protection for civilians in besieged areas. The focus is on the following besieged areas: Syria (e.g. Raqqa, Aleppo, Deir-Ez-Zor and Eastern Ghouta), Hudaydah in Yemen and Mosul in Iraq. The recent literature is dominated by the conflict in Syria while
- [Livestock and Conflict in South Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/livestock-and-conflict-in-south-sudan/) - Livestock are critically important in South Sudanese society1 and this is reflected in the role livestock play in the country’s conflict, both serving as drivers of conflict and being negatively impacted by the conflict, with the two often reinforcing each other in a vicious cycle. This review drew largely on a mixture of academic and
- [Serious and Organized Crime in Jordan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/serious-and-organized-crime-in-jordan/) - This review presents findings on the prevalence and nature of serious and organized crime in Jordan, and efforts to combat this. The extremely limited literature on the topic indicates that Jordan has low levels of serious and organized crime: the main forms are smuggling of goods and drugs, and human trafficking. The influx of large
- [Social Safety Nets in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-safety-nets-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Social safety nets in fragile and conflict-affected states often include cash and in-kind transfers, school feeding programmes and public works programmes (O’Brien, Scott, Smith, Barca, Karden, Holmes, Watson & Congrave, 2018). Programmes often target vulnerable households, refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) in order to reduce their exposure to shocks and recourse to negative coping
- [National Dialogues: Lessons Learned and Success Factors](https://gsdrc.org/publications/national-dialogues-lessons-learned-and-success-factors/) - National dialogues are: “nationally-owned political processes aimed at generating consensus among a broad range of national stakeholders in times of deep political crisis, in post-war situations or during far-reaching political transitions” (Blunck et al., 2017, 21). They are typically accompanied by broader societal consultations, involving all sectors of society. Their objective can involve broad-based change
- [Advantages and Value of Funding NGOs in the Global South](https://gsdrc.org/publications/advantages-and-value-of-funding-ngos-in-the-global-south/) - This rapid literature review examines the advantages or added value of providing donor funding directly to Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) or Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) based in the global south, rather than channelling such funding through International NonGovernmental Organisations (INGOs). The literature reveals that United Nations (UN) agencies and INGOs receive the bulk of donor funding
- [Current Trends in Violent Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/current-trends-in-violent-conflict/) - This rapid literature review presents the key literature that discusses current trends in violent conflict. The focus is upon recent ideas that are prevalent in literature from post-2015. The literature review draws on both academic and grey literature. The review includes both quantitative analyses of conflict data sets (Szayna et al, 2017a; 2017b; Watts, 2017)
- [Legal Pathways’ Effects on Irregular Migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/legal-pathways-effects-on-irregular-migration/) - Regular migration pathways include labour mobility regimes, sponsorship programmes for high-skilled workers, student visas and protections for refugees. In contrast, irregular migration pathways include illegal entry, overstaying a visa and befallen irregularity (where regular status is lost) (Vickstrom, 2014). The links between regular (legal) pathways for migration and irregular migration is complex, however, two linked
- [Government Communication Capacity and Media Freedom](https://gsdrc.org/publications/government-communication-capacity-and-media-freedom/) - The aim of this rapid literature review is to examine the relationship between government communication services and media freedom. However, this relationship receives little mention in the literature on media development and media freedom. Hence, it is very difficult to reach a consensus on the relationship between government communication services and media freedom due to
- [Implications of Not Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS) Needs in Conflict Situations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/implications-of-not-addressing-mental-health-and-psychosocial-support-mhpss-needs-in-conflict-situations/) - This review of existing literature indicates that there are a number of significant implications of not addressing mental health and psychosocial (MHPSS) needs of children, youth, and adults in conflict settings. Mental health consequences of war are by now fairly well documented (see for example Murthy and Lakshminarayana, 2006; Werner, 2012; Betancourt et al., 2014;
- [Public Sector Reform and Capacity Building in Small Island Developing States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/public-sector-reform-and-capacity-building-in-small-island-developing-states/) - Small Island Developing States (SIDS) experience capacity constraints relating to their small size, remoteness and dispersion (in the case of island archipelagos), which impinge on the quality of the public sector (Horscroft, 2014; Mycoo & Donovan, 2017). This rapid literature review summarises the evidence on public sector reform and capacity building initiatives in SIDS. Overall,
- [International donor activity on climate change mitigation and adaptation in the G5 Sahel countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/international-donor-activity-on-climate-change-mitigation-and-adaptation-in-the-g5-sahel-countries/) - This review provides a snapshot of current adaptation and mitigation projects being implemented by multilateral and bilateral donors in the G5 countries of the Sahel. Although not a systematic review, the research for this review has methodically examined key multilateral donor websites and bilateral donor websites for information on each of the G5 countries and
- [Benefits and risks of Big Data Analytics in fragile and conflict affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/benefits-and-risks-of-big-data-analytics-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Big Data is an umbrella term for the large amounts of digital data continually generated by the global population. The main sources are data exhaust (largely from use of mobile phones), online information (e.g. social media), physical sensors (e.g. satellite imagery) and crowdsourced data (from citizens). Big Data for Development refers to sources of Big
- [Technical Assistance and Capacity Building in International Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/technical-assistance-and-capacity-building-in-international-development/) - This rapid literature review has been commissioned as an update to a previous report on technical assistance produced by the K4D programme in 2018 by Hannah Timmis. This report concentrates on technical assistance or capacity building in North Africa. This review found only one comprehensive study on technical assistance published after Timmis (2018) and a
- [Lessons from environmental peacebuilding programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-environmental-peacebuilding-programming/) - This rapid literature review collates lessons from conflict resolution/peacebuilding programmes that include land, resource management, and/or environmental issues. This is a burgeoning area of research which draws on a number of interrelated concepts such as environmental peacebuilding, resilience building, and bottom-up peacebuilding. Ide and Scheffran (in Ide, 2017, p.545) conceptualise environmental peacebuilding as including “all
- [Community cohesion projects to prevent violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-cohesion-projects-to-prevent-violent-extremism/) - This review looks at the use of community cohesion projects to prevent or counter violent extremism (P/CVE). It finds that such initiatives can be helpful in conflict-affected societies, but there are limited evaluations in the literature, and these generally do not make a direct causal link between interventions to promote social (community) cohesion and P/CVE.
- [Options for managing a sudden rise in public debt](https://gsdrc.org/publications/options-for-managing-a-sudden-rise-in-public-debt/) - Debate has raged over whether and when debt reduction is appropriate, particularly in advanced economies. Arguments for lowering public debt are based on the costs and risks generated by high public debt; debt reduction is generally deemed appropriate when the risks associated with it are greater than those associated with debt-reducing policies (Best et al
- [Drivers and enablers of serious organised crime in Southeast Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/drivers-and-enablers-of-serious-organised-crime-in-southeast-asia/) - There are many definitions of organised crime. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has developed a general definition: Organized crime is a continuing criminal enterprise that rationally works to profit from illicit activities that are often in great public demand. Its continuing existence is maintained through corruption of public officials and the use
- [Automation of government processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/automation-of-government-processes/) - This rapid literature review examines the impact of, and lessons from, automating government processes in middle-income countries (MICs) and fragile and conflict affected environments (FCAEs).
- [G7 and G20 commitments on health](https://gsdrc.org/publications/g7-and-g20-commitments-on-health/) - The health issues that have received the most consistent attention in G7 and G20 summit declarations, having been addressed in more than half of the summits since 2015 and appearing in 30 or more commitments over that time, are:  Health systems strengthening  Infectious diseases (including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, polio, neglected tropical diseases, and
- [Non-State Policing in Fragile Contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/non-state-policing-in-fragile-contexts/) - Non-state policing refers to the use of non-state (informal) actors, e.g. vigilante groups, private security firms, to carry out ‘law and order’ functions (preventing crime, investigating, detaining and punishing those responsible for crimes). Non-state policing is not a synonym for community policing (a much broader term, usually associated with formal police agencies) but there are
- [Preventing/Countering Violent Extremism Programming on Men, Women, Boys and Girls](https://gsdrc.org/publications/preventing-countering-violent-extremism-programming-on-men-women-boys-and-girls/) - Gender and age can have a big influence on people’s roles in relation to violent extremism: if they are vulnerable to recruitment, if they join violent extremist groups, the driving factors, what their participation in violent extremism entails, and – critically – what approaches should be taken to preventing or countering violent extremism (P/CVE). Hence,
- [Linking Social Protection and Humanitarian Response – Best Practice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/linking-social-protection-and-humanitarian-response-best-practice/) - This review looks at the alignment of humanitarian response in refugee crises with national social protection systems. It examines the experience of three countries dealing with protracted refugee situations: Turkey, Lebanon and Cameroon, and also identifies lessons from other literature. The number of people affected by crises and disasters continues to rise, and humanitarian refugee
- [International Actors' Support on Inclusive Peace Processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/international-actors-support-on-inclusive-peace-processes/) - This rapid literature review collates evidence from academic and grey literature on support on inclusive peace processes. The review identified limited evidence based on robust evaluations, there is, however, a wide range of reviews (principally case studies) of peace processes and national dialogues that have been collected and collated to distil lessons on what works
- [Fossils fuels and job creation in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/fossils-fuels-and-job-creation-in-africa/) - Fossil fuel development, including oil, gas and coal, can provide or support employment in a number of different ways. Estimates for Africa’s extractive sector as a whole put it as employing less than 1% of Africa’s workforce (Fine et al., 2012). However, it is hard to determine the number of jobs supported directly or indirectly
- [Aid and non-state armed groups](https://gsdrc.org/publications/aid-and-non-state-armed-groups/) - This rapid literature review collates lessons related to aid (conditionality) and non-state armed groups (NSAGs). This is a companion paper to Herbert (2019)1 which looks more broadly at lessons from the use of aid conditionality in peace processes, that paper includes greater detail on what conditionality is. While the question posed sought to find information
- [Conditionality and other approaches to secure women’s rights provisions in peace processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conditionality-and-other-approaches-to-secure-womens-rights-provisions-in-peace-processes/) - This rapid literature review found no examples of the use of aid conditionality specifically to ensure inclusion of women’s rights provisions in peace process outcomes but did identify other effective approaches, notably mobilisation of women, external pressure by mediators/international development partners, and funding and capacity building support for women’s groups. There are examples of peace
- [Lessons from the use of aid conditionality in peace processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-the-use-of-aid-conditionality-in-peace-processes/) - This rapid literature review collates lessons from the literature on peace conditionality. This is a companion paper to Herbert (2019)1 which looks more specifically at lessons related to aid (conditionality) and non-state armed groups (NSAGs). While there is literature on peace conditionality more generally – e.g. being used for a range of purposes, and at
- [Development Characteristics of Small Island Developing States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/development-characteristics-of-small-island-developing-states/) - This rapid literature review explores whether there are specific characteristics of Small Island Developing States (SIDS), or a subgroup of SIDS, which mean that income alone is an inaccurate measure of development. The SIDS classification is a technical and political term used to identify those countries that are considered to face specific and increasing challenges
- [Engaging new governments on development priorities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/engaging-new-governments-on-development-priorities/) - This rapid literature review considers donor engagement with newly elected governments in aid recipient countries. It sought to focus on the immediate period after a new administration is elected and takes office. However, despite the importance of donor-government engagement, few studies were located during the timeframe of this review that focuses on how donors should
- [Interventions to Reduce Forced Marriage](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-to-reduce-forced-marriage/) - This review drew largely on academic papers as well as reports by international development organisations. Evidence and hence lessons on how to combat forced marriage are limited and sometimes contradictory. Overall, the literature points to a number of approaches that can be effective, notably: empowerment of girls; community approaches to change social norms and attitudes
- [Political economy of Papua New Guinea and the water, sanitation and hygiene sector](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-papua-new-guinea-and-the-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-sector/) - The political economy of Papua New Guinea is characterised by formal and customary governance actors, structures and institutions, weak governance and corruption. Traditional institutions and structures including ‘big man’ politics, the wantok system and customary land tenure have been overlaid with formal governance structures including national, provincial and local governments with administration located at these
- [Support for civil society engagement in peace processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/support-for-civil-society-engagement-in-peace-processes/) - There is a widespread acknowledgement of the importance of civil society engagement in peace processes (Inclusive Security, 2013; Peace Direct, 2019). This is reflected in the wide range of interventions being carried out by various donors to support such engagement. This review looks at the effectiveness of interventions specifically aimed at supporting civil society groups
- [Lessons from stabilisation, statebuilding, and development programming in South Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-stabilisation-statebuilding-and-development-programming-in-south-sudan/) - This rapid literature review collates lessons from major evaluations and learning reviews from development, state-building and stabilisation programming in South Sudan since independence in 2011. Key findings include:  Donors in South Sudan have had to transition from humanitarian to development aid and back and forth a number of times as conflict has broken out.
- [Integrated approaches to refugee management in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/publications/integrated-approaches-to-refugee-management-in-uganda/) - Uganda has been a global leader in implementing an integrated approach to refugee management in which refugees enjoy essentially the same rights and access to jobs and services as locals. This approach has benefited both refugees and host communities: the former have land and (limited) livelihood opportunities, the latter benefit from improved services for all
- [Social and behaviour change communication interventions in Mozambique](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-and-behaviour-change-communication-interventions-in-mozambique/) - Social and behaviour change communication (SBCC) is the use of communication to change behaviours by positively influencing knowledge, attitudes and social norms at the individual and community level. Approaches to SBCC include, but are not limited to: media campaigns, peer educators and mentors, small group sessions, community dialogues and events, and digital tools. This rapid
- [Responding to popular protests in the MENA region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/responding-to-popular-protests-in-the-mena-region/) - This review looks at government responses to violent protests in a selection of countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Focusing on the 2011 Arab Spring protests, it finds that the initial response of most regimes was violent repression – Tunisia where the president stepped down, and Morocco and Jordan where the respective
- [Justice systems in the Sahel](https://gsdrc.org/publications/justice-systems-in-the-sahel/) - This review looks at justice provision in four countries in the Sahel: Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso and Chad. All feature formal (state) justice systems alongside customary/religious justice, with the latter typically being seen by citizens as more accessible, cheaper and less corrupt. State justice systems in all the countries face similar challenges: corruption, resource and
- [Biodiversity conservation and restoration and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/biodiversity-conservation-and-restoration-and-poverty-reduction/) - Reconciling the twin goals of biodiversity conservation and restoration, and poverty reduction is difficult. A number of factors seem to influence effectiveness across intervention types including context, intervention design, governance and management quality, community engagement and participation, and intervention or programme length. This report largely focuses on outcomes from protected areas, payments for ecosystem services
- [Media/communications on peacebuilding/social cohesion/changing prevailing narratives on conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/media-communications-on-peacebuilding-social-cohesion-changing-prevailing-narratives-on-conflict/) - The media can play a positive role in peacebuilding/conflict prevention. Recognition of this has led to increasing programmes on media/communications and peacebuilding, with common interventions including training of journalists, and development of pro-peace programme content. However, there are significant challenges in designing and implementing such programmes, and even more in evaluation. While some interventions have
- [Security and Justice Evidence Mapping Update](https://gsdrc.org/publications/security-and-justice-evidence-mapping-update/) - This evidence mapping was conducted to identify the empirical evidence on the outcomes of security and justice (S&J) interventions ranging from security reform to training border guards and to update an original evidence mapping published in September 2015. The findings are presented in the form of an evidence gap map, which provides an accessible and
- [Inclusive and Green Growth in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/inclusive-and-green-growth-in-developing-countries/) - This rapid review explores the potential trade-offs involved in supporting Inclusive and Green Growth (IGG) in developing countries. The International Institute for Environment and development comments that to bring about real transformation towards IGG will require leadership, to generate societal demand, including by poor women and men, and to supply supportive governance reforms (IIED, 2016).
- [Livelihood Options and Pathways out of Poverty in Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/livelihood-options-and-pathways-out-of-poverty-in-nepal/) - This rapid review synthesises findings from a rigorous academic, practitioner, and policy references published in the past 10 years that discuss livelihood options and pathways out of poverty for households in Nepal. The World Bank (2016) highlights that in 1991, circa 40% of the Nepali population were identified as poor. Further rounds of the Nepal
- [Situation of Persons with Disabilities in Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/publications/situation-of-persons-with-disabilities-in-lebanon/) - An estimated 10-15% of the Lebanese population has physical, sensory, intellectual, or mental disabilities, according to the more reliable data available. The rate of prevalence is estimated at about 10% among refugees who have fled from Palestine to Lebanon from 1947, at about 8% among Palestinian refugees from Syria, and at 10-22.8% among refugees who
- [Models of Gender-Sensitive Procurement Used by  International Aid Entities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/models-of-gender-sensitive-procurement-used-by-international-aid-entities/) - Few international entities working in international development, humanitarian aid, or similar sectors, are systematically implementing gender-sensitive procurement (GSP) in their own operations, a rapid survey of 40 such multilateral, bilateral, and non-profit organisations conducted for this report shows. Of the 15 organisations that responded with information by email, the reported practices stand as follows: 3
- [Effects of Violence in the Home on Children's Mental Health and Psychosocial Wellbeing During Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effects-of-violence-in-the-home-on-childrens-mental-health-and-psychosocial-wellbeing-during-conflict/) - Being exposed to violence in the home during war increases children’s risk of developing problems in mental health and psychosocial wellbeing (MHPSW), a small but robust evidence base shows. Conversely, this evidence shows that supportive parenting can be a protective factor against the demonstrated negative effects of war on children’s MHPSW. Evidence from multiple sources
- [Maternal, Newborn and Child Health in Emergency Settings](https://gsdrc.org/publications/maternal-newborn-and-child-health-in-emergency-settings/) - More than 500 women and girls die in emergency settings every day due to complications arising from pregnancy and childbirth (UNFPA, 2018, p. 3). In 2017, an estimated 535 million children (nearly one in four of the world’s children) lived in countries affected by emergencies (UNICEF, 2017). This report provides examples of organisations working in
- [Higher education, developmental leadership and good governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/higher-education-developmental-leadership-and-good-governance-2/) - The last decade has witnessed a renewed interest in the social benefits of higher education, with recent research suggesting that universities have a role in nurturing developmental leaders who enable positive change and better governance in low-income and conflict-affected countries (Brannelly et al, 2011b). This review summarises available evidence on the relationship between higher education,
- [Donors Influencing Others Donors and Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donors-influencing-others-donors-and-development/) - There is a growing interest in the ways in which donors can be influenced. While there is some nascent literature on how behavioural insights can be used to influence policymakers (see Helpdesk report, no. 1426), there is very limited research and evidence on the ways in which donors influence other donors. Based on the available
- [Aid Absorption: Factors and Measurements](https://gsdrc.org/publications/aid-absorption-factors-and-measurements/) - Absorptive capacity refers to ‘the ability to use additional aid without pronounced inefficiency of public spending and without induced adverse effects’ (Bourguignon and Sundberg, 2007, 640). An absorptive capacity limit is a point at which a country can no longer absorb or spend aid efficiently and aid is then subject to diminishing returns (IES, 2017;
- [Digital Development and the Digital Gender Gap](https://gsdrc.org/publications/digital-development-and-the-digital-gender-gap-2/) - This rapid literature review collates findings from recently published papers on digital development and gender, highlighting some of the most commonly discussed discussions related to economic, social and political development. As the scope of this query is very large, this review provides an illustration of some of the commonly identified issues in the literature. The
- [Innovative Financial Technologies to Support Livelihoods and Economic Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/innovative-financial-technologies-to-support-livelihoods-and-economic-outcomes/) - Access to digital technologies, in particular, mobile phones, internet connectivity and biometric authentication, allows for a wider range of financial services, such as online banking, mobile phone banking, and digital credit for the unbanked. Digital financial services can be more convenient and affordable than traditional banking services, enabling low-income and poor people in developing countries
- [Digital inclusion - recent trends and messages](https://gsdrc.org/publications/digital-inclusion-recent-trends-and-messages/) - This annotated bibliography collates extracts from recently published flagship policy reports on digital inclusion in international development, highlighting the key messages, trends and issues. The digital inclusion agenda seeks to close the gaps in access to, and adoption of, fast evolving information and communication technology (ICTs) services, particularly mobile phones and the internet. It is
- [Who are the Elite Groups in Iraq and How do they Exercise Power](https://gsdrc.org/publications/who-are-the-elite-groups-in-iraq-and-how-do-they-exercise-power/) - The 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq transformed Iraq’s political settlement by ejecting the previous elites from power and by initiating state-building processes with previously marginalised elites and different governance principles. Iraq’s current day elites and institutions are the inheritors of that process. This review summarises the post-2003 processes that structure the nature of Iraqi politics
- [Barriers to youth work opportunities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/barriers-to-youth-work-opportunities/) - There is growing evidence that youth unemployment is becoming a bigger issue and challenge than adult unemployment (Manpower group, 2012). While young labour participants and adult participants can be affected by similar opportunities and barriers to work, youth may experience these barriers to a greater degree and may also face additional constraints. This report explores
- [Barriers to Women's Economic Inclusion in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/publications/barriers-to-womens-economic-inclusion-in-tanzania/) - The main barriers to women’s economic inclusion in Tanzania are: time poverty (because women have to spend so much time on household chores); lack of education; reproductive health pressures; lack of assets and access to financial services; in the case of agriculture - lack of access to male labour and inputs such as fertiliser; in
- [Cultural Practices on Burial and Care for the Sick in South Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cultural-practices-on-burial-and-care-for-the-sick-in-south-sudan/) - The literature on cultural practices for burial and care for the sick among individual ethnic groups in South Sudan was very limited. However, it clearly points to the importance of proper burials among all ethnic groups: these typically entail washing the body of the deceased; it can take several days before burial takes place; and
- [Inclusive and Sustained Growth in Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/inclusive-and-sustained-growth-in-iraq/) - Iraq faces significant economic challenges, in particular stemming from its dependence on oil revenue and the country’s bloated public sector. Private sector growth is particularly constrained by the dominance of state-owned enterprises (SOEs), restrictive regulations, lack of access to finance, shortage of skilled labour and inadequate infrastructure. This review drew largely on reports by international
- [Economic Situation in Jordan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-situation-in-jordan/) - Jordan has one of the smallest economies in the Middle East, and its lack of natural resources and water scarcity make it heavily dependent on foreign aid and foreign investment. Following the global financial crisis of 2008 growth slowed significantly; the deteriorating regional situation since 2011 and subsequent mass influx of Syrian refugees has made
- [Mapping Women's Economic Exclusion in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-womens-economic-exclusion-in-tanzania/) - Tanzania is one of the best performing economies in East Africa in recent years, which is reflected in improved human development. However, inequalities – including gender inequalities – persist. This report maps evidence for economic exclusion of women in Tanzania. The main source of data used is the 2014 Integrated Labour Force Survey (ILFS), the
- [Designing, Implementing and Evaluating Public Works Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/designing-implementing-and-evaluating-public-works-programmes/) - This helpdesk report aims to outline the scope, impact and challenges associated with public works programmes (PWPs) in development and humanitarian contexts. PWPs have been implemented in a broad range of countries to help working-aged poor people to cope with economic shocks or chronic poverty (McCord, 2012b). The majority of PWPs are effective in terms
- [Benefits of Internships for Interns and Host Organisations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/benefits-of-internships-for-interns-and-host-organisations/) - Internships enable students to acquire skills, which cannot be learned in the classroom environment, while employers obtain access to low-cost labour and reduced recruitment costs (Galloway, Marks, & Chillas, 2014; Holyoak, 2013; Maertz, Stoeberl, & Marks, 2014). Interns develop interpersonal skills, team-working skills, professionalism and customer management experience. Students also improve their communication, confidence and
- [Lessons Learned from Youth Employment Programmes in Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-learned-from-youth-employment-programmes-in-kenya/) - The government of Kenya with the support of multilateral donors, especially the World Bank, has introduced several youth employment initiatives since the 2000s, including a large-scale public works programme. There is a mix of supply-side programmes which provide training to enhance the skills of the youth labour force and demand-side initiatives which facilitate entrepreneurship and
- [Lessons Learned from Youth Employment Programmes in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-learned-from-youth-employment-programmes-in-developing-countries/) - Youth employment programmes are varied but meta-analysis and systematic reviews of impact assessments of these programmes indicate that some interventions have an overall positive effect on employment and earnings. Assessments of programmes which support youth job creation in the private sector find that larger businesses are more likely to generate jobs than micro-enterprises. In general,
- [Privatisation of State Owned Enterprises in Ethiopia since 1991](https://gsdrc.org/publications/privatisation-of-state-owned-enterprises-in-ethiopia-since-1991/) - After decades of socialist rule under the Derg regime, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) adopted market reforms including privatisation of state owned enterprises (SoEs) in 1991. This is a historic literature review, which traces the causes, scale, modalities and impact of the privatisation programme. The literature on the early privatisation programme is sparse,
- [Indicators and Methods for Assessing Entrepreneurship Training Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/indicators-and-methods-for-assessing-entrepreneurship-training-programmes/) - Entrepreneurship training programmes are an important component of demand-side job creation strategies in developing countries (Fox and Kaul, 2017). Assessments of such programmes are constrained by variations in the programme content, as entrepreneurship training is often combined with grants, life-skills training, internships and mentorship. The targets of these programmes also vary and include vulnerable groups,
- [The Impact of Entrepreneurship Training Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-entrepreneurship-training-programmes/) - Entrepreneurship training programmes generally have a positive impact on existing and aspiring entrepreneurs, especially in terms of promoting better business practices. Programmes which provide training for entrepreneurs often include other interventions such as micro-finance, grants, internships or mentorship (McKenzie & Woodruff, 2013). The varied content of the programmes as well as differences in length and
- [Strengthening the Financial Independence of Independent Media Organisations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/strengthening-the-financial-independence-of-independent-media-organisations/) - This report is a review of the literature on interventions and business models which can help independent media organisations to become financially sustainable. The overall finding is that independent media in developing countries are primarily reliant on grant funding. Some independent media organisations in Asia, Latin America and the Middle East are generating revenue from
- [Supporting Persons with Disabilities in Somalia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/supporting-persons-with-disabilities-in-somalia/) - In a country where violence has been ongoing since 1991, persons with disabilities face extreme hurdles in being recognised, accessing resources and feeling valued in their community. This is particularly true for children and women with disabilities. Persons with disabilities in Somalia are side-lined in every aspect of humanitarian responses and are being denied their
- [Sharia-Compliant Investments in Infrastructure and Development Capital Financing in DFID/CDC/PIDG Geographies](https://gsdrc.org/publications/sharia-compliant-investments-in-infrastructure-and-development-capital-financing-in-dfid-cdc-pidg-geographies/) - Investments in infrastructure and development capital financing being made in DFID / CDC /PIDG geographies by institutions operating on Islamic finance principles are still limited in scope. The Islamic Development Bank Group is the main donor and agent encouraging other institutions to get involved in the process, through various initiatives. The major undertakings initiated by
- [Leave No One Behind: Infrastructure and Inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/publications/leave-no-one-behind-infrastructure-and-inclusion/) - This review outlines ways in which different groups of people might be unintentionally excluded if their needs and livelihoods are not taken into account in infrastructure projects. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the concept of ‘leave no one behind’ capture the desire to ensure people are not excluded as citizens in their society. Some
- [Rural Transport Interventions to Improve Maternal Health Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rural-transport-interventions-to-improve-maternal-health-outcomes/) - Rural transport interventions have been shown to improve maternal health outcomes. This rapid review synthesises findings from academic, practitioner, policy and non-governmental organisation (NGO) sources that discuss maternal mortality and transport. The report focusses on evidence on interventions from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), in Africa and Asia, in particular. While there is a descriptive
- [Local financing for infrastructure in Zambia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/local-financing-for-infrastructure-in-zambia/) - This rapid review of literature identifies constraints and interventions related to financing infrastructure in sub-Saharan Africa, with particular attention to the role of pension funds in the region. The need for infrastructure development in Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa is well-established in the literature (see, for example, World Bank, 2017; Brookings Institution, 2017; Cambridge Economic Policy
- [Conflict early warning and early response](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-early-warning-and-early-response/) - Identify examples of early warning systems to monitor fragile states at risk of violence/instability and cases of early/pre-emptive intervention in states at risk of descending into conflict/instability. What does the literature say about what kind of interventions have been/can be made; in what sectors have they been made effectively, and how?
- [Youth vulnerability to violent extremist groups in the Indo-Pacific](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-vulnerability-to-violent-extremist-groups-in-the-indo-pacific/) - This review of factors driving youth vulnerability to recruitment by violent extremist groups in the Indo-Pacific highlights the variety of factors involved, and the importance of looking at each situation individually. It is impossible to generalize: youth recruitment is context-specific. In Bangladesh the political situation has created space for violent groups, with youth recruitment facilitated
- [Regional cooperation and political stability and prosperity](https://gsdrc.org/publications/regional-cooperation-and-political-stability-and-prosperity/) - Regional cooperation takes a number of forms. Types of formal regional cooperation include preferential trade agreements, free trade agreements, customs unions, common markets, economic unions, economic and monetary unions, full economic integration, and political unions (Marinov, 2015, pp. 24-25). The literature identifies a number of benefits and risks of regional cooperation. While the literature search
- [Institutional partnerships and twinning between civil service organisations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/institutional-partnerships-and-twinning-between-civil-service-organisations/) - ‘Twinning’ typically entails a form of formalised partnership between similar institutions in the North and South for an indefinite period (Jensen, 2007; Baud et al., 2010), with the aim of strengthening the capacity of partners in developing countries (Jones and Blunt, 1999; Ouchi, 2004). Institutional twinning inherently implies that the primary focus of the capacity
- [The future of work for women in the Indo-Pacific region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-future-of-work-for-women-in-the-indo-pacific-region/) - The ‘future of work’ is a policy concept that explores how various technological, socio-economic, geopolitical, demographic, cultural, and environmental megatrends are developing and interacting to create new types of jobs, industries, labour conditions, and business models. It is not well-defined or critiqued as a definition, and there is no standard approach to what concepts are
- [Refugees in Uganda: (in)stability, conflict, and resilience](https://gsdrc.org/publications/refugees-in-uganda-instability-conflict-and-resilience/) - This paper analyses the structural challenges, root causes and dynamics of conflict, (in)stability and resilience in Uganda, with a particular focus on their relation to recent refugee movements. The first section of the paper explores the national dynamics that shape conflict, (in)stability and resilience in Uganda. The second section analyses the refugee flows, policies, impacts,
- [Mapping of stakeholders engaged in Public Works Programmes (PWPs)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-of-stakeholders-engaged-in-public-works-programmes-pwps/) - Public works programmes (PWPs) have received increasing attention as a social protection intervention due to their perceived benefits of tackling poverty by addressing basic consumption needs whilst improving public goods and community infrastructure. This helpdesk report maps organisational and individual actors engaged in PWPs in development and humanitarian contexts from a policy, implementation and influencing
- [Using Zakat for international development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/using-zakat-for-international-development/) - This review focuses on Zakat, a particular form of almsgiving within Islam. The value of Zakat is estimated to range from US$ 200 billion to US$ 1 trillion per annum across the world (Stirk, 2015) or around US$ 187 million among countries in the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation (Shaikh, 2016). Therefore, interest in mobilising Zakat
- [Conflict, instability and  resilience in Nigeria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-instability-and-resilience-in-nigeria/) - This paper analyses the structural challenges, root causes and dynamics of conflict, instability and resilience in Nigeria. The first half of the paper explores the overall socio-economic, socio-cultural, political and environmental factors that shape conflict, instability and resilience in Nigeria. The second half of the paper explores the specific regionalised conflicts in greater detail. The history of the modern Nigerian state
- [Jobs in Kenya: opportunities and challenges](https://gsdrc.org/publications/jobs-in-kenya-opportunities-and-challenges/) - This report examines job opportunities in Kenya and challenges to their expansion. Job opportunities are measured on three levels: quantity, quality and inclusiveness. All three outcomes matter for a country’s development; “just having jobs is not enough” (World Bank, 2017). For individuals, the quantity, quality and inclusiveness of jobs determine living standards, since jobs are
- [Disability in South Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/disability-in-south-sudan/) - Decades of conflict in South Sudan, pre and post-independence in 2011, poverty and poor access to services have increased the rate of disability and rendered people with disabilities more marginalised and excluded as a result of the numerous attitudinal, environmental, and institutional barriers they face, and the lack of concerted efforts to include them. This
- [Donor funded alliances promoting regional cooperation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-funded-alliances-promoting-regional-cooperation/) - There are a significant number of donor funded regional cooperation arrangements across a broad range of thematic areas. However, the level of their success varies considerably, and the literature search carried out for this report did not identify any unqualified successes. Areas of cooperation include defence, environmental issues and economic integration. There is a relatively
- [M&E methods for local government performance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/me-methods-for-local-government-performance/) - A range of methods can be used to monitor and evaluate whether a programme/workstream has contributed to change in local governance, service delivery and economic development, and to generate understanding and knowledge that can be shared with others to support better governance, service delivery and economic development in a decentralised government system. This report looks
- [Youth initiatives supporting citizen engagement with government](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-initiatives-supporting-citizen-engagement-with-government/) - There is a large volume of literature on youth participation in development, including on the benefits of involving young people in local, national, regional and global governance initiatives. Although not as voluminous, there is also a significant body of work on youth participation in civic life, though much of this focuses on issues of education
- [Assistive technologies in developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/assistive-technologies-in-developing-countries/) - Assistive technologies enable people to live healthy, productive, independent and dignified lives, yet most people who need them are currently unable to access them. This rapid review looks at examples of existing literature on the availability of assistive technologies and efforts to make these technologies more affordable and accessible in developing countries.
- [Communication interventions supporting positive civic action in Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/publications/communication-interventions-supporting-positive-civic-action-in-lebanon/) - This rapid review synthesises data from academic, policy and NGO sources on the role media can play in creating/easing tensions between refugees and the host community, and within the host community itself. Acknowledging the importance media can play in perceptions, and considering the confessional and political nature of the media, the review also maps the
- [Youth employment programmes in developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-employment-programmes-in-developing-countries/) - Youth employment programmes are varied but meta-analysis and systematic reviews of impact assessments of these programmes indicate that some interventions have an overall positive effect on employment and earnings. Assessments of programmes which support youth job creation in the private sector find that larger businesses are more likely to generate jobs than micro-enterprises. In general,
- [Threats to and approaches to promote freedom of religion or belief](https://gsdrc.org/publications/threats-to-and-approaches-to-promote-freedom-of-religion-or-belief/) - Violations of religious freedom are increasing globally in scale, depth and blatancy. Carried out by both government and non-state actors, they range from the mundane (e.g. administrative restrictions) to the extreme (e.g. genocide). A multi-layered, multi-actor approach is needed to protect and promote freedom of religion or belief. The literature stresses that approaches to protect and
- [Donor response to refugee tensions in Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-response-to-refugee-tensions-in-lebanon/) - This rapid review synthesises data from academic, policy and NGO sources on donor response to prevent and reduce tensions between Lebanese and refugees in refugee-hosting communities across Lebanon. The focus is on post 2011 and Syrian refugees as the complexity of social, cultural, and historical dynamics produce tensions that are unique to Syrians and Lebanese.
- [Modern slavery within the tea industry in Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/modern-slavery-within-the-tea-industry-in-bangladesh/) - The main factor driving modern slavery within the tea industry in Bangladesh is the extreme marginalisation of tea garden workers, who are mostly descendants of migrants from India, by wider society. Social and economic exclusion mean workers have no alternative to working under highly exploitative conditions in the tea industry. The review found considerable literature
- [Factors important to the establishment, renewal or rehabilitation of the civil service](https://gsdrc.org/publications/factors-important-to-the-establishment-renewal-or-rehabilitation-of-the-civil-service/) - This literature review seeks to place the emergence of the civil service within its historical context, and highlight the role it has played in state-building. The civil service has helped the state to penetrate peripheral territories, standardise physical and psychological space, and accommodate competing sources of power. The review notes the expansion of the administrative role of the
- [Civil Society in Authoritarian Regimes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-society-in-authoritarian-regimes/) - This rapid review synthesises findings from rigorous academic, practitioner, and policy references on the role of civil society in promoting social accountability in authoritarian regimes and the ways donors can support them. The main geographic focus of this report is East Africa, with a secondary focus on Sub-Saharan Africa. In the African context civil society
- [Effectiveness of working in consortia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-working-in-consortia/) - The role of working in partnerships to address complex development challenges is gaining increasing attention. Development research suggests that collaboration might be the key to meaningful and practical solutions to complex real-world problems (Gonsalves 2014: 2). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) promote multi-stakeholder partnerships. Working in consortia is one partnership structure currently utilised by development
- [Disability in Somalia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/disability-in-somalia/) - People with disabilities have been identified as a particularly marginalised and at risk group within Somali society as a result of the numerous attitudinal, environmental, and institutional barriers they face, and the lack of concerted efforts to include them. This rapid review identifies available evidence on the experiences of people with disabilities living in Somalia.
- [Approaches to remote monitoring in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/approaches-to-remote-monitoring-in-fragile-states/) - Provide an update to the 2013 GSDRC report ‘Remote management of projects in fragile states’, focusing on new remote monitoring approaches, tools and examples that are being used, specifically on third party monitoring approaches. In complex environments, where the root causes of conflict are often entrenched and dynamic, ensuring that the right information from multiple sources
- [Humanitarian interventions for food/nutrition support in Ethiopia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-interventions-for-foodnutrition-support-in-ethiopia/) - There are many evidence gaps in the delivery of humanitarian food/nutrition aid. Evaluation of the relative cost‐effectiveness of dietary response projects is confounded by the fact that different projects can have different objectives (USAID, 2015). Ethiopia has made progress in meeting emergency needs, including through the Government of Ethiopia-led Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP), which
- [Factors affecting success or failure of political transitions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/factors-affecting-success-or-failure-of-political-transitions/) - Political transitions from authoritarian rule to democracy can have a variety of outcomes. This rapid literature review looks at the factors affecting the success or failure of political transitions. Because of the diverse nature of the countries that have experienced political transitions it is very difficult to come up with a list of ‘best practices’
- [Supporting and rebuilding agriculture in protracted crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/supporting-agriculture-in-protracted-crises-and-rebuilding-agriculture-after-conflict-and-disasters/) - The agriculture sector holds great potential before, during and after crises such as conflict and disasters caused by natural hazards, to save lives and contribute to livelihoods, support rural households, and provide decent employment (Eynon, 2017, p. 2; Mayen, 2016, p. 2). This rapid review looks at recent available evidence on the impact of conflict,
- [Interventions to support victims of modern slavery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-to-support-victims-of-modern-slavery/) - This review found few evaluations of interventions to support victims of modern slavery, even though there is recognition of the need for support services. While there is little evidence on effectiveness of interventions, the literature highlights the importance of victim-centred, holistic (multi-disciplinary) approaches to supporting victims. There is strong consensus in the literature on the
- [Interventions to combat modern slavery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-to-combat-modern-slavery/) - This report details findings from evaluations of a range of interventions to combat modern slavery. While there are three broad areas of efforts to tackle modern slavery – prevention, protection and prosecution – the main focus to date has been on prevention and, to a lesser extent, protection; prosecution has received far less attention. The
- [Digital development and the digital gender gap](https://gsdrc.org/publications/digital-development-and-the-digital-gender-gap/) - This rapid literature review collates findings from recently published papers on digital development and gender, highlighting some of the most commonly discussed discussions related to economic, social and political development. As the scope of this query is very large, this review provides an illustration of some of the commonly identified issues in the literature. The
- [Restricting space for civil society](https://gsdrc.org/publications/restricting-space-for-civil-society/) - There is consensus in the literature reviewed for this rapid query that the space for civil society to act has been increasingly restricted in the past decade. This is a global phenomenon – occurring in different ways and not in all countries – but in all regions of the world. It is occurring in all regime
- [Linkages between private sector development, conflict and peace](https://gsdrc.org/publications/linkages-between-private-sector-development-conflict-and-peace/) - The private sector can both exacerbate drivers of conflict and contribute to peacebuilding in post-conflict states. Examples of the role that the private sector can play in conflict and peace at the macro, meso and micro levels include the following: Macro level There is a general consensus in the literature that illicit trade in natural resources
- [Wastewater Treatment Plants in rapid mass displacement situations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/wastewater-treatment-plants-in-rapid-mass-displacement-situations/) - This rapid review report has identified the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) options used in emergency settings, with decentralised wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) and mobile wastewater treatment units performing most effectively and with minimal costs. Examples are taken from refugee camps and internally displaced people (IDP) settlements due to the Iraq war, the Israeli-Palestine conflict, and
- [Leveraging change to policies, laws and practices in refugee hosting countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/bangladesh-rohingya-crisis-leverage-change-to-policies-laws-and-practices/) - This rapid review synthesises data from academic, policy and NGO sources on influencing government polices on refugees, with a particular focus on Rohingya in Bangladesh. However, it must be noted that this is an under researched topic with only the work of Jacobsen (1996) focusing specifically on the subject. Additionally, there are very few successful
- [Women’s participation in peacebuilding and reconciliation in Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-participation-in-peacebuilding-and-reconciliation-in-iraq/) - This rapid review synthesises data from academic, policy and NGO sources on women’s participation in peacebuilding in Iraq. Peacebuilding will be defined as a ‘range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all levels for conflict management and to lay the foundation for sustainable
- [Rohingya refugee crisis: impact on Bangladeshi politics](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rohingya-refugee-crisis-impact-on-bangladeshi-politics/) - The huge Rohingya refugee influx into Bangladesh is seen in the literature as likely to strengthen the position of the Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and her Awami League party. However, there are concerns that it will lead to further authoritarianism in the country, as well as fuel extremist sentiment. The Bangladeshi public are generally
- [Environmental Impact Assessments in refugee crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/environmental-impact-assessments-in-refugee-crises/) - Although much of the literature found by this rapid review emphasises the necessity of including environmental considerations into the planning of mass displacement camps, and the role of environmental impact assessments (EIAs), there is little publically available literature on the assessments carried out, and the quality of these. The literature specifically highlights the role of
- [Waste management in situations of rapid, mass displacement](https://gsdrc.org/publications/waste-management-in-situations-of-rapid-mass-displacement/) - Solid waste and faecal sludge management in situations of rapid mass displacement are important to public health and providing for a better environment. Despite this, both have been neglected in WASH programmes, which tend to have a focus on water. However increasing efforts are being made to find solutions to challenges in solid waste and
- [Innovative WASH options in situations of severe overcrowding](https://gsdrc.org/publications/bangladesh-rohingya-crisis-innovative-wash-options/) - A rapid review of the literature has found a selection of innovative WASH options available for situations of severe population overcrowding and limited spaces. Case study information was collated from African, Middle Eastern, South Asian and Caribbean countries. As requested, a number of experts were consulted for their opinion where there was a lack of
- [Managing risks in securitisation of refugees](https://gsdrc.org/publications/managing-risks-in-securitisation-of-refugees/) - This rapid review synthesises data from academic, policy and NGO sources on the securitisation of refugees, with a particular focus on Rohingya in Bangladesh. Although not referred to as refugees in Bangladesh, this report refers to Rohingya fleeing Myanmar as refugees. There is limited research on managing the risk of securitisation of refugees, rather the
- [Lessons from the coordination of refugee responses](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-the-coordination-of-refugee-responses/) - The literature review found little evidence of successes in coordination of refugee responses involving multiple lead agencies. Rather, it identified some clear lessons to emerge from recent experience of refugee response coordination, in particular from the Syrian refugee crisis in Lebanon. While host governments are assigned primary responsibility for refugee responses in international law, they
- [Effectiveness of various refugee settlement approaches](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-various-refugee-settlement-approaches/) - This review of the effectiveness of different approaches to refugee settlement shows that the ‘traditional’ approach of setting up refugee camps is ineffective in many respects - particularly in terms of promoting self-reliance - and hence to be avoided. The recommendation in policy circles is now for alternatives to camps that provide economic opportunities to
- [Scenario thinking and usage among development actors](https://gsdrc.org/publications/scenario-thinking-and-usage-among-development-actors/) - Scenario thinking is a strategic planning method that organisations use to make flexible long-term plans. Recent discussions of this method offered by the Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre (2009) define scenario thinking (they refer to it as scenario planning) as ‘a futures technique for medium to long-term strategic analysis and planning used to develop policies and
- [Child labour in the artisanal and small-scale mining sector in Asia and Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/child-labour-in-the-artisanal-and-small-scale-mining-sector-in-asia-and-africa/) - This rapid review synthesises data from academic, policy, and NGO sources on child labour in the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector in Asia and Africa. ASM refers to small groups engaged in low-cost, low-tech, labour-intensive excavation and processing of minerals. Therefore, a clear distinction can be made between industrial and large-scale (usually licensed) mining
- [Cash transfer platforms in humanitarian contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cash-transfer-platforms-in-humanitarian-contexts/) - As cash transfer programming (CTP) in humanitarian contexts has increased, so has the use of multipurpose (unconditional) cash transfers and the range of actors providing them. Use of different cash delivery platforms by different agencies can increase costs, inefficiency, and the risk of duplication and fraud, so 'single cash platforms' (the same delivery mechanism for
- [Myanmar’s stabilisation challenges](https://gsdrc.org/publications/myanmars-stabilisation-challenges/) - The communities currently most at risk of, and affected by, conflict and violence are those living in the Kokang Self-Administered Zone and in other parts of northern Shan State. Other affected communities include those in Kachin, Rakhine, Chin and Kayin States. The community most affected by the threat of forced displacement is the Rohingya, a
- [Donor support for post-conflict elections](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-support-for-post-conflict-elections/) - Well-timed elections can contribute to conflict resolution and help to consolidate a peace agreement or power-sharing deal among elites. But elections also have the potential to reignite hostilities. This report examines the following key factors, and how they have played out in recent post-conflict elections in Mozambique, Sierra Leone and Nepal: The content and inclusiveness of
- [Three-tier federalism: examples and lessons](https://gsdrc.org/publications/examples-and-lessons-from-three-tier-federalism/) - In most federal systems, municipalities are integrated into the state governments. Yet Argentina, Brazil, South Africa and Switzerland have adopted a three-tier federal structure in which exclusive legislative powers are granted to local government, below state and provincial government. While decentralisation has the potential to improve accountability and give greater voice to the users of services,
- [Disability prevalence and trends](https://gsdrc.org/publications/disability-prevalence-and-trends/) - The WHO and World Bank (2011) estimate that over a billion people (or 15% of the global population) have a disability, although this estimate is known to have limitations. Disability prevalence is influenced by factors that vary across countries including trends in health conditions, environmental factors and other variables such as road traffic crashes, natural disasters,
- [China’s aid to developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/a-review-of-chinas-official-development-assistance/) - Definitions and types of aid China’s measurement of “foreign aid” differs from “official development assistance”, for example by including military assistance and excluding donor administrative costs. The main forms of Chinese foreign aid are: complete projects; goods and materials; technical cooperation and human resources development cooperation; medical teams and volunteers; emergency humanitarian aid; and debt
- [Changes in economic activity during and after conflict ](https://gsdrc.org/publications/changes-in-economic-activity-during-and-after-conflict-/) - Conflict changes economic activity in a number of ways. This report looks at whether these changes in economic activity become entrenched after conflict has ended. The available evidence found within the scope of this report suggests that the extent to which changes in economic activity become entrenched after conflict depends on how developed a country
- [Child domestic work](https://gsdrc.org/publications/child-domestic-work/) - The definition of Child Domestic Work (CDW) is contested. Whilst international law defines children as any person under the age of 18 years old, in some countries, the national minimum age to work can be as low as 14 years old. Furthermore, socio-cultural patterns and national level policies add an additional dimension to how CDW
- [Impacts of tax capacity on development outcomes ](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impacts-of-tax-capacity-on-development-outcomes-/) - There is increasing recognition that strong tax systems can have impacts on economic growth, the sustainability of revenues for expenditure, state-building, and inequality, although there are debates about the trade-offs to achieving these differing and sometimes incompatible objectives. Tax revenue appears to be more likely to be used to support broad development goals than revenue
- [Funding of anti-modern slavery interventions ](https://gsdrc.org/publications/funding-of-anti-modern-slavery-interventions-/) - This review looks at the availability of funds to tackle modern slavery1 and human trafficking2, and the availability of data in this regard. It seeks to move beyond the findings of Martina Ucnikova’s 2014 paper, OECD and Modern Slavery: How much aid money is spent to tackle the issue?, and identify updated (post-2013) data on
- [Lessons from peace processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-peace-processes/) - Lesson learning has played an important role in advancing peace processes across the globe.1 Although no two conflicts are alike there are a number of wider lessons and practices that can be transferred to other peace processes. However, it is important to understand the differences and similarities in order to develop the lessons within the
- [Innovative financing methods for social protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/innovative-financing-methods-for-social-protection-/) - This report provides a rapid literature review of the evidence on innovative financing methods for social protection using global case studies. The review found that financing for social protection often comes from government funds. Options for government to increase social investment can be found through reallocating public expenditures, increasing tax revenues, expanding social security coverage and
- [Mapping donor activities in support of tax capacity](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-donor-activities-in-support-of-tax-capacity/) - Domestic resource mobilisation has become a high priority on the international development agenda, with building tax capacity integral to the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the G20’s Tax agenda. This rapid review provides a mapping of the most prominent agencies and initiatives working on tax capacity building, identifying key work streams
- [Effectiveness of tax reform interventions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-tax-reform-interventions/) - The academic and practitioner literature on tax reform, and comments from several experts contacted in connection with this report, emphasise that improving the performance of tax systems is highly complex and context-specific, without simple or direct answers. Improvements are only likely to come from combinations of large and small changes made with close and detailed
- [Technological automation and impact on the African labour market](https://gsdrc.org/publications/technological-automation-and-impact-on-the-african-labour-market/) - Estimates of how many jobs are vulnerable to being replaced by machine vary but it is clear that developing countries are more susceptible to automation compared to high-income countries. Traditionally, blue-collar routine jobs have been automated but with the emergence of greatly improved computing power, artificial intelligence and robotics, a much larger scope of occupations
- [Women and girls with disabilities in conflict and crises ](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-and-girls-with-disabilities-in-conflict-and-crises-/) - People with disabilities have been found to ‘form one of the most socially excluded groups in any displaced or conflict-affected community’ (Pearce et al, 2016: 119). They may have difficulty accessing humanitarian assistance programmes, due to a variety of societal, attitudinal, environmental and communication barriers, and are at greater risk of violence than their nondisabled
- [Drivers of Syrian refugee onward migration from Jordan to Europe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/drivers-of-migration-from-jordan-to-europe/) - This helpdesk report discusses the main drivers of Syrian refugee onward movement from Jordan to Europe. They include: Limited livelihood opportunities: Syrian refugees were largely prevented from accessing Jordan’s formal labour market from 2011 to 2015 (Lenner and Schmelter, 2016). Lack of livelihood opportunities has contributed to poverty and hardship (DRC, 2016; REACH, 2016; Edwards,
- [Behaviour change approaches for social norms regarding gender](https://gsdrc.org/publications/behaviour-change-approaches-for-social-norms-regarding-gender/) - This report aims to inform a project which will set up self-help groups for young men from deprived urban areas in developing countries. The project will deliver an open-source course or set of materials using the most appropriate format for community level mobilisers to equip themselves to facilitate a series of ‘courageous conversations’ amongst young
- [Civil society organisations and accountability in cash transfer programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-society-organisations-and-accountability-in-cash-transfer-programmes/) - Cash transfer programmes, like most social protection programmes, are vulnerable to fraud, errors, corruption and misuse of funds, which undermine their achievements1 (Perron, 2012: 1; Bhargava and Raha, 2015: vi). Effective mechanisms for transparency, accountability and participation help minimise those in need being wrongfully excluded from programme rolls; discourages clientelism and abuse of programmes for
- [Branding and communication of development assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/communicating-development-assistance-to-recipients/) - In recent years, international donors and non-governmental organisations have placed increasing emphasis on prominently branding the development interventions that they fund. Spreading knowledge about the identity of an aid project sponsor is one mechanism by which donor governments conduct local level diplomacy with direct beneficiaries and through which they hope to influence public opinion. The
- [Refugees and encampment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/refugees-and-encampment/) - This helpdesk report discusses the important question of shifting policy on refugees from encampment to other models. It particularly focuses on what contexts, and in response to what drivers and arguments, have host countries shifted from an encampment to a more relaxed refugee policy regime. Several examples of governments moving from encampment to other methods
- [Higher education, developmental leadership and good governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/higher-education-developmental-leadership-and-good-governance/) - The available literature suggests, first, that there is no established causal pathway connecting higher education, developmental leadership and good governance. Recent studies have found a general pattern of positive correlation between levels of enrolment in higher education and indicators of good governance, but debates continue as to: the ability of individual leaders and developmental coalitions
- [Conflict-sensitive cash transfers: social cohesion](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-sensitive-cash-transfers-social-cohesion/) - The literature suggests that the effects of social protection initiatives such as cash transfers and vouchers on social cohesion are positive, but there is very little empirical evidence to back this. This review found no research comparing cash transfers and vouchers from the perspective of social cohesion. Experience of cash transfers in developing countries, including
- [Conflict-sensitive cash transfers: unintended negative consequences](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-sensitive-cash-transfers-unintended-negative-consequences/) - Risks associated with cash transfer programmes in fragile contexts include theft, diversion, corruption, security, targeting, misuse by beneficiaries and inflationary effects. However, the literature indicates that – while different – these risks are no greater than those associated with other forms of aid, e.g. vouchers or in-kind goods, and could even be less. Cash transfer
- [Drivers of conflict in Tunisia: An annotated bibliography](https://gsdrc.org/publications/drivers-of-conflict-in-tunisia-an-annotated-bibliography/) - Tunisia has witnessed an increase in conflict activity in recent years, both in the form of violent political protest and acts of violence perpetrated by armed jihadist groups. This report identifies some of the key literature on drivers of conflict in Tunisia, looking at both short-term and structural factors. The literature included in this report
- [International development, UK aid and Official Development Assistance spending](https://gsdrc.org/publications/international-development-uk-aid-and-official-development-assistance-spending/) - This report aims to introduce someone unfamiliar with the field of international development to some of its complexities. It includes hyperlinks to sources rather than a traditional referencing system, to make follow-up learning as easy as possible for the reader. The report introduces international development, its the global context, and the UK parliament’s guiding principles, legislation and
- [Sustainable Development Goals and current trends](https://gsdrc.org/publications/sdgs-and-current-trends/) - This report focuses on Agenda 2030 and the challenges of delivering the Global Goals and the implications of trends for the UK’s international development work. Section 2 focuses on the Global Goals for Sustainable Development (SDGs/Global Goals) and the challenges of delivering them. These Global Goals will shape the world’s approach to growth and sustainable
- [Digital tools and changing behaviour in relation to violence against women](https://gsdrc.org/publications/digital-tools-and-changing-behaviour-in-relation-to-violence-against-women-2/) - The advent of technology-based solutions brings with it both opportunities and challenges. On the one hand, technology has the potential to play a key role in transforming gender inequality and unequal social relations; on the other, it may encourage new forms of violence against women. A number of factors have been identified that contribute to
- [Modern slavery in the DRC](https://gsdrc.org/publications/modern-slavery-in-the-drc-2/) - ‘Modern slavery’ encompasses a variety of situations in which one person is forcibly controlled by one or more others for the purpose of exploitation (Cockayne, 2015). ‘Forced or compulsory labour’ is defined by the ILO Forced Labour Convention as ‘all work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty
- [Humanitarian results indicators and how they relate to the SDGs](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-results-indicators-and-how-they-relate-to-the-sdgs/) - Donor agencies use a number of indicators for humanitarian action. In June 2016, ECHO reduced the number of KRIs (Key Results Indicators) it uses from 113 to 35 (ECHO also permits partners to combine pre-defined key results indicators with additional custom indicators). In addition to the sectors covered in this report ECHO also has humanitarian indicators
- [Flexibility in funding mechanisms to respond to shocks](https://gsdrc.org/publications/flexibility-in-funding-mechanisms-to-respond-to-shocks/) - In order to better and more rapidly respond to shocks such as sudden onset disasters, there have been increasing efforts to build flexibility into humanitarian or development funding arrangements, as current emergency responses are often slow to arrive and/or unresponsive to forecasts of disasters (Start Network, 2017; Rüth et al, 2017, p. 2). This rapid
- [State fragility in the Central African Republic: What prompted the 2013 coup?](https://gsdrc.org/publications/state-fragility-in-the-central-african-republic-what-prompted-the-2013-coup/) - In March 2013 a coalition of rebel groups – Séléka – led a violent coup in the Central African Republic (CAR), ousting the former President François Bozizé from ten years in power and instating the new President Michel Djotodia. CAR is now in the midst of a deepening humanitarian and economic crisis, compounded by violence
- [Digital tools and improving women’s safety and access to support services](https://gsdrc.org/publications/digital-tools-and-improving-womens-safety-and-access-to-support-services/) - It is broadly accepted that digital media and the internet can provide new forms of communication and engagement for women that make networking easier, increase their social capital and facilitate the creation/growth of women’s movements. Technology can also be used to mitigate gender-based violence and improve women’s safety in a number of ways: Electronic monitoring
- [Disability in Syria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/disability-in-syria/) - This rapid review is based on 5 days of desk-based research. It is designed to provide a brief overview of the key issues, and a summary of pertinent evidence found within the time permitted. The literature was identified using two methods. Firstly, a number of experts were identified and contacted. They were asked to provide
- [Effectiveness of programmes supporting migrants in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-programmes-supporting-migrants-in-africa/) - Despite a growing body of research on migration and development, the literature highlights the limited empirical evidence available on the effectiveness of migration programmes. The aid-spending departments of the UK government are in the process of identifying how UK aid contributes to tackling the “root causes of mass migration” and developing new, targeted programmes. A
- [Violent extremism and terrorism in Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/violent-extremism-and-terrorism-in-yemen/) - Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) first gained control of territory in 2011 when it took advantage of political chaos; it once again managed to take control of territory following the current civil war, which began in early 2015. AQAP’s aim is to create a number of smaller emirates, which will eventually link to
- [Stabilisation in Syria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/stabilisation-in-syria/) - The Syrian conflict is now in its seventh year and involves a wide range of both national and international parties. Crucially, no party is in a position to establish control over the entire country. This has implications for efforts at stabilisation. There is increasing recognition that the Assad regime cannot be displaced and hence efforts
- [Governance in Syria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/governance-in-syria/) - Over the past six years the civil war in Syria has evolved into a multifaceted conflict with numerous actors both internally and externally. As a result a complicated framework of governance has emerged with fragmented arrangements operating across the country. Therefore, although there are policies that can be implemented across the board and centralised institutions
- [Factors behind the fall of Mosul to ISIL (Daesh) in 2014](https://gsdrc.org/publications/factors-behind-the-fall-of-mosul-to-isil-daesh-in-2014/) - The city of Mosul in Iraq’s Nineveh Province fell to the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), known in Iraq as Daesh, on June 9 2014, following three days of fighting between jihadists and the Iraqi Security Forces. General factors behind the fall of Mosul in 2014: Sectarian policies: Marginalisation of the Sunni
- [Resources on governance and inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/publications/resources-on-governance-and-inclusion/) - Inclusion is a prominent concept – some say “buzzword” – in current international development thinking and debates. The recently adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) promote inclusion – to “leave no one behind” – and place governance at the heart of achieving this. For example, SDG 16 aims to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,
- [Social capital in Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-capital-in-yemen/) - Social capital in Yemen is informed primarily by tribal affiliation, particularly in rural areas and in the north. Other important sources including faith based institutions, local community solidarity initiatives, civil society organisations and support from the diaspora. While social capital has been eroded due to political, social and economic changes in recent years, the strong
- [Integrating special-status territories into national political structures](https://gsdrc.org/publications/integrating-special-status-territories-into-national-political-structures/) - This rapid literature review has searched for experiences of areas or regions that have gone from having a form of special status governance to integration into a national political, legal and administrative system. The focus was on identifying cases similar to the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) in Pakistan, and the Government of Pakistan’s proposed
- [An analysis of existing evidence around perceptions of the Tanzanian education system](https://gsdrc.org/publications/an-analysis-of-existing-evidence-around-perceptions-of-the-tanzanian-education-system/) - This Helpdesk report has been commissioned to help understand the extent to which the education system currently meets young people’s needs and how far the school represents a safe space for young people. In line with the plan to gather insights and identify trends, themes and areas for discussion for policy meetings about the wider
- [Data on child trafficking](https://gsdrc.org/publications/data-on-child-trafficking/) - This rapid review synthesises findings from rigorous academic, practitioner, and policy references published in the past fifteen years that discuss child trafficking and human trafficking more generally. The focus is on the most predominant data produced by OECD countries, reports produced by international organisations that collect data from OECD countries, as well as available literature
- [Sustainable livelihoods for refugees in protracted crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/sustainable-livelihoods-for-refugees-in-protracted-crises/) - Much of the literature in this area acknowledges the widespread constraints to livelihoods development in refugee settings. These include a disabling policy environment, low levels of social capital, poverty, and weak baseline levels of training and skills. Measures to support self-sufficiency are often severely hampered by restricted freedom of movement, weak tailoring of interventions to
- [Interventions on child labour in South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-on-child-labour-in-south-asia/) - The three principal international conventions on child labour (Minimum Age to Employment Convention, 1973 (No. 138), Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989, together set the legal parameters for child labour and provide the legal foundations for national and international action
- [Conflict analysis of Egypt](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-egypt/) - In 2011 Egypt experienced mass protests culminating in the fall of long serving president, Hosni Mubarak. The time in power of the country’s first democratically elected President, the Muslim Brotherhood’s Mohamed Morsi, was short-lived. He was deposed by Egypt’s military on 3 July 2013, following anti-government demonstrations. Abdul Fatah el-Sisi, former head of the armed
- [Sinai conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/publications/sinai-conflict-analysis/) - The Sinai conflict has been underway since 2011 and has become progressively more intense and violent, fuelled by localised grievances as well as wider regional developments. The key actors involved are militant jihadist groups, local Bedouin tribes and the Egyptian government/military; others such as Israel, Gaza and the Multinational Forces and Observers have varying influence
- [Criminal networks and the illicit wildlife trade](https://gsdrc.org/publications/criminal-networks-and-illicit-wildlife-trade/) - This five day help desk review provides an overview of academic, policy and practitioner literature that examines the illicit wildlife trade and criminal networks. Whilst there is a broad consensus that the illegal wildlife trade is a pressing and growing concern, there is much debate as to what this trade entails and who the key actors
- [The political economy of the illegal wildlife trade](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-political-economy-of-the-illegal-wildlife-trade/) - This review is based on a rapid assessment of academic, donor and grey literature. A large part of recent scholarship in this area has been produced by international non-governmental organisations (INGOs), or else can be found in peer-reviewed academic journals. Authors do not appear to have engaged with the gender implications of IWT in the
- [Impact of economic sanctions on poverty and economic growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-economic-sanctions-on-poverty-and-economic-growth/) - Key findings are as follows: Economic sanctions lead to an increase in the poverty gap and deprived sections of the population feel the most impact. For the most part sanctions fail to achieve their aims and elites manage to negotiate the adverse effects to a far greater level than poorer citizens. Sanctions have a damaging
- [Mapping of research on child labour in South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-of-research-on-child-labour-in-south-asia/) - This Help Desk Report aims to map out research on child labour in South Asia, specifically: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, as well as Myanmar (Burma). The report focuses on major projects being carried out by international organisations with an examination of their expenditure on research, as well as local partners. The report also highlights
- [Syrian refugee onward migration from Jordan to Europe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/syrian-refugee-onward-migration-from-jordan-to-europe/) - There has been a massive influx of Syrian refugees into Jordan since the Syrian conflict began: the official figure is over 650,000 but the actual number is likely to be much higher (ACAPS, 2016: 1). Only 21.5 per cent of registered Syrian refugees are living in camps; 78.5 per cent are in urban areas, distributed
- [National Security Office responsibilities and functions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/national-security-office-responsibilities-and-functions/) - It should first be noted that only ‘grey literature’ was identified for this helpdesk. Some information is included from government websites. Much of the material is commentary, included to give an idea of what is being said on this area. It must be taken into account that this information is conjecture. This rapid review found
- [Cross-border conflict drivers and breaks – Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cross-border-conflict-drivers-and-breaks-pakistan-afghanistan-iran-and-iraq/) - This report provides an overview of the evidence on cross-border conflict drivers and breaks along the Pakistan–Afghanistan–Iran–Iraq route. Direct evidence on the nature of conflict-related flows along this route in its entirety is limited. Therefore, this report includes evidence on crossborder conflict dynamics between neighbouring countries along the route. This report was commissioned as an
- [Implementing safeguard policies in infrastructure programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/implementing-safeguard-policies-in-infrastructure-programming/) - DFID’s infrastructure position paper states that ‘improved infrastructure service provision is crucial to delivering DFID’s economic and human development objectives’ (DFID 2013) This work includes energy, transport, water and sanitation, information communications technology (ICT), housing and urban infrastructure (DFID 2015). Infrastructure is central to achieving economic development and providing poor people with opportunities to escape
- [Evidence on education as a driver for migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-education-as-a-driver-for-migration/) - This report synthesises two previous reports on drivers of migration1, and focuses on the evidence on education’s role. The previous reports focused on education and migration in fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS), and youth employment and education in low and middle income countries. The papers presented below reflect these original criteria, but reframe the studies
- [Gender and conflict in Ukraine](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-and-conflict-in-ukraine/) - The conflicts in eastern and southern Ukraine constitute a significant humanitarian crisis for the country and the region, with at least 1.7 million internally displaced persons, two-thirds of whom are women (UNOCHA 2016, p. 7; UNHCR 2015, p. 5) and approximately 1.5 million people seeking asylum or other forms of legal stay in neighbouring countries
- [Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 in Libya](https://gsdrc.org/publications/implementation-of-un-security-council-resolution-1325-in-libya/) - The literature on gender equality, development and security suggests that sustainable peace and successful long-term development are linked to gender equality policies (Selimovic & Larsson, 2014: 5). UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (SCR 1325), approved in 2000, reaffirms the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts, peace-building, and in postconflict reconstruction.1
- [Social protection and child labour in Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-protection-and-child-labour-in-asia/) - Social protection is increasingly recognised as a key route to reducing children’s poverty and vulnerability. It is assumed to have direct or indirect effects on specific challenges that children face, such as child labour. Child labour is not often included as a main aim of social protection, and therefore is not commonly tracked systematically (de
- [Impact of lifting economic sanctions on poverty and growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-lifting-economic-sanctions-on-poverty-and-growth/) - This rapid review synthesises findings from rigorous academic, practitioner, and policy references, focusing on recent and seminal works with the aim of highlighting the impact of lifting sanctions on poverty and economic development. There is a further aim of helping to inform policymakers in Sudan in the event of sanctions being fully lifted. Therefore, an
- [Conflict and gender dynamics in Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-and-gender-dynamics-in-yemen/) - The current conflict in Yemen, which began in 2015, has resulted in a humanitarian catastrophe. As of March 2017, 18.8 million people are in need of humanitarian support, and 10.3 million are in acute need (Sikurajapathy and Al-Fotih, 2017). Women, men, boys and girls have been affected in different ways by the conflict. This rapid
- [Gender and conflict in the Western Balkans](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-conflict-western-balkans/) - Ethnic wars in the Western Balkans had a parallel in ‘gender wars’ – and both were instrumental in fostering competitive, conflictual and antagonistic perspectives of social relations (Hughson, 2012). This report provides a brief summary of gender relations and (in)equalities in the Western Balkans, in particular, how they have been influenced by the violent conflicts
- [Improving gender outcomes for regional trade programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/improving-gender-outcomes-for-regional-trade-programmes/) - Global trade and regional integration have gender-specific outcomes: in developing countries and specifically in South Asia, women do not have the same access as men to benefits of trade. This report reviews the gender outcomes of trade and describes policies and initiatives tackling the three main gender-based barriers to benefiting from trade: (i) sociocultural norms,
- [The impact of mines and explosive remnants of war on gender groups](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-mines-and-explosive-remnants-of-war-on-gender-groups/) - Global and country-specific gender-disaggregated data on casualties is made available through the annual Landmine Monitor produced by the International Campaign to Ban Landmines – Cluster Munition Coalition (ICBL-CMC). However, there appears to be little in the way of granular analysis and research to interrogate the underlying reasons behind yearly fluctuations in casualty figures. Additionally, in
- [Emergency humanitarian response to longer-term development in refugee crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/emergency-humanitarian-response-to-longer-term-development-in-refugee-crises/) - This report provides a rapid literature review of the evidence on emergency humanitarian response to longer-term development in refugee crises. While the scope of the report did not allow for complex judgements to be made about the quality of the body of evidence, or of the strength of individual pieces of evidence, an evidence table
- [International humanitarian law and human rights violations in Syria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/international-humanitarian-law-and-human-rights-violations-in-syria/) - All parties involved in the Syrian conflict have carried out extensive violations of international humanitarian law and human rights. In particular, all parties are guilty of targeting civilians. Rape and sexual violence have been widely used as a weapon of war, notably by the government, ISIL and extremist groups. Reports by the International Independent Commission of
- [Psycho-social support for children and school staff in protracted conflict situations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/psycho-social-support-for-children-and-school-staff-in-protracted-conflict-situations/) - Whilst the provision of psychosocial activities is regularly mentioned in documents referring to the humanitarian response to education, there is a dearth of literature that refers to exactly what these programmes consist of, and how effective they are. There is, however, widespread recognition of the importance of providing psycho-social interventions to counter the impact of
- [Evidence and experience of procurement in health sector decentralisation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-and-experience-of-procurement-in-health-sector-decentralisation/) - Improving the efficiency, effectiveness, equity and responsiveness of supply chains and procurement processes for pharmaceuticals, vaccines and other health products, which make up a large share of total health expenditure in low and middle-income countries (LMICs), has important implications for health system performance and population health. Decentralised governance of health services provides greater autonomy in
- [Human rights and governance provisions in OECD country trade agreements with developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/human-rights-and-governance-provisions-in-oecd-country-trade-agreements-with-developing-countries/) - Trade agreements increasingly feature governance and human rights provisions. Countries taking the lead in this are the United States and Canada (the EU was not covered in this review). However, they tend to be selective in their provisions, focusing in particular on labour rights, transparency and anti-corruption, as well as public participation and intellectual property
- [Data on the prevalence of the worst forms of child labour](https://gsdrc.org/publications/data-on-the-prevalence-of-the-worst-forms-of-child-labour/) - This rapid review synthesises findings from rigorous academic, practitioner, and policy references published in the past fifteen years that discuss the prevalence of the worst forms of child labour. Globally, children are routinely engaged in paid and unpaid forms of work that are considered not harmful to them. They are classified as child labourers when
- [Transparency and performance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transparency-and-performance/) - This report presents and discusses the evidence on impact from greater donor transparency, particularly in terms of accountability. In this report we distinguish between two types of aid information: information collected and disseminated by donor agencies about the results of their activities (looking closer at results based management), and information open to the public about
- [Transparency and accountability initiatives in the extractives sector](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transparency-and-accountability-initiatives-in-the-extractives-sector/) - Research on the impact and effectiveness of transparency and accountability initiatives (TAIs) targeted at the extractives sector is hard to come by. With the exception of some more systematic evaluation of the impact of multi-stakeholder initiatives, in particular the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), the existing evidence is weak. Indeed, beyond the EITI-focussed literature, the
- [Parliamentary transparency and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/parliamentary-transparency-and-accountability/) - This report presents and discusses what evidence exists about initiatives to promote transparency among legislators, members of parliament (MPs), and legislative processes and what impact this has had on legislative accountability. In this report we distinguish between two types of accountability: vertical (in which citizens play a direct role in holding the powerful to account)
- [Transparency and accountability in fragile and conflict-affected settings](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transparency-and-accountability-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-settings/) - Over the past 10 years, there have been numerous meta-studies and syntheses of the impact and effectiveness of transparency and accountability initiatives (TAIs), many of which attempt to incrementally add value to the existing evidence base or offer new perspectives on existing conclusions. These studies are almost unanimous in their conclusion that little of practical
- [Gender norms in the Western Balkans](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-norms-in-the-western-balkans-2/) - The Western Balkans remains a region dominated by patriarchal gender norms. The biggest challenge for improving gender equality is changing the mentality of women and men towards traditional gender roles (Petričević, 2012). The literature consistently identifies social attitudes as a barrier to increasing gender equality. Many people are not aware of women’s rights or gender
- [Economic drivers of conflict in the Western Balkans](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-drivers-of-conflict-in-the-western-balkans/) - This report looks at each of the six Western Balkans countries listed above, identifies the key economic challenges they face and assesses whether any of these are, or have the potential to become, drivers of conflict. The literature reviewed largely comprised reports from international development/finance organisations, notably the World Bank, IMF and European Commission, as
- [Current response to persecution of Christians in the Middle East](https://gsdrc.org/publications/current-response-persecution-christians-middle-east/) - In 2016, various political bodies, including the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate and UK Parliament, declared that the atrocities of the militant group ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria), against Christians, Yazidis, Shi’a Muslims and other religious minorities in areas under its control amount to genocide (Shea, 2016; Kraft and Manar, 2016; Ochab,
- [Civil society organisations supporting accountability in cash transfer programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-society-organisations-supporting-accountability-in-cash-transfer-programmes/) - This five day rapid review looks at the experiences globally of civil society organisations providing or supporting accountability mechanisms in cash transfer programmes. Bhargava and Raha’s (2015: 12) review of civil society engagement with cash transfer programme accountability found only few studies, suggesting to them that there is a significant knowledge gap. A mixture of
- [Migration, forced displacement  and social protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/migration-forced-displacement-social-protection/) - The purpose of this paper is to set out a common framework, language and understanding of the relevance of social protection to different groups of migrants and forcibly displaced people. There are an estimated 244 million people currently living in a country other than that of their birth. This group of people includes wealthier migrants, able
- [Donor work on security and justice in the Eastern Caribbean](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-work-on-security-and-justice-in-the-eastern-caribbean/) - The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is a grouping of twenty countries in the Caribbean region, aimed at promoting economic integration, foreign policy coordination, human and social development, and security. The Eastern Caribbean comprises Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. These countries are also part of the Regional Security
- [Developmental impacts of interventions to support legal migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/k4d110/) - There is very little impact evaluation evidence of the developmental outcomes of interventions to support regular migration. The review identified only one migration intervention (the New Zealand Recognised Seasonal Employment Programme) which had had rigorous impact evaluations conducted: the scheme was found to have positive impacts on employers, migrants and origin countries (Gibson & McKenzie,
- [Trade promotion of female-owned and/or managed small and medium enterprises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/trade-promotion-of-female-owned-andor-managed-small-and-medium-enterprises/) - Evidence shows that despite barriers to women’s engagement in export trade, there are multiple approaches and entry points yielding successful results and impacts in promoting female-owned and/or managed small and medium enterprise integration in export markets. Key findings from the literature include: Barriers for women: there is significant consensus in the literature reviewed for this study
- [Women and countering violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-and-countering-violent-extremism/) - The experience of various women and CVE programmes confirms that women can and do play a significant role in P/CVE - but they need to be supported and empowered to do so. Key lessons emerging from experience to date include the following: Need for gender mainstreaming: It is important to consult women and involve them
- [Legislative oversight in public financial management](https://gsdrc.org/publications/legislative-oversight-in-public-financial-management/) - This Rapid Evidence Assessment examines the quality of the available evidence on the effectiveness of reforms aimed at improving legislative oversight to attain improved development outcomes, and summarises the available lessons from the literature. The specific research questions considered are: What is the effectiveness of the different public finance legislative oversight interventions in improving government transparency and
- [Public procurement reform: assessing interventions aimed at improving transparency](https://gsdrc.org/publications/public-procurement-reform-assessing-interventions-aimed-at-improving-transparency/) - This Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) asks: what is the effectiveness of different interventions that aim to improve the transparency of public procurement? It also asks: What is the impact of improved procurement on accountability, anti-corruption and service delivery? Is it possible to produce key success criteria? An evidence base consisting of 48 studies, of high (11),
- [Decentralisation of budgeting process](https://gsdrc.org/publications/decentralisation-of-budgeting-process/) - This literature review examines evidence about the impact of public financial management (PFM) interventions in the field of decentralisation of budgeting. It asks: What is the effectiveness of devolved budgeting models in relation to the efficiency of PFM systems, service delivery, budget allocation, citizen involvement, accountability and anti-corruption? What factors contribute to, or prevent, the
- [Changing gender and social norms, attitudes and behaviours](https://gsdrc.org/publications/changing-gender-social-norms-attitudes-behaviours/) - This annotated bibliography presents studies of programmes that aim to bring about changes in gender and social norms, and changes in wider attitudes and behaviours. Much of the literature and some programme designs recognise the need to change social norms in order to change behaviours, such as HIV/AIDs prevention and better sanitation and hygiene. The report looks at
- [Role of business in tackling modern slavery in supply chains](https://gsdrc.org/publications/role-business-tackling-modern-slavery-supply-chains/) - Key findings: Not much research has been done on business supply chain management and modern slavery: The available literature is extremely limited. Pressures on companies to tackle modern slavery in supply chains are increasing: These include growing consumer concerns about the issue, fears of reputational damage, the potential for companies to charge more for ‘slave
- [Drivers of conflict in the Swat Valley, Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/drivers-of-conflict-in-the-swat-valley-pakistan/) - There is a substantial body of literature that explores drivers of conflict in the Swat Valley, but assessments of the impact of interventions are more limited. While the drivers of conflict in the Swat Valley have some unique characteristics, it is difficult to separate these from the genesis of militancy in the wider Afghanistan/Pakistan border region
- [CSOs supporting accountability in cash transfer programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/csos-supporting-accountability-cash-transfer-programmes/) - Cash transfer programmes, like most social protection programmes, are vulnerable to fraud, errors, corruption and misuse of funds, which undermine their achievements. Civil society organisations (CSOs) have supported, or provided, accountability mechanisms in countries around the world: working to improve transparency to help citizens hold authorities accountable; checking beneficiary lists; encouraging compliance by highlighting benefits;
- [Piracy in the Horn of Africa, West Africa and the Strait of Malacca](https://gsdrc.org/publications/piracy-in-the-horn-of-africa-west-africa-and-the-strait-of-malacca/) - What factors are discouraging or encouraging piracy in the Horn of Africa, West Africa and the Strait of Malacca? This report finds that a combination of factors in each of the regions have affected levels of piracy, at different times and depending on the type of piracy. For example, these factors may differ for subsistence pirates (largely gangs
- [Sustainable livelihoods in Ugandan refugee settings](https://gsdrc.org/publications/sustainable-livelihoods-in-ugandan-refugee-settings/) - Uganda has hosted refugees from neighbouring conflict-affect countries for several decades. Some research suggests that self-employed refugees are somewhat more successful than employed refugees, but there is little concrete evidence from Uganda that current refugee livelihood strategies are successfully fostering self-reliance and sustainable solutions. Most of the available literature uncovered in this review is grey literature.
- [Dominant party systems and development programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/dominant-part-systems-and-development-programming/) - There is a lack of applied thinking or rigorous empirical investigation into how donors and the international community can work with dominant party systems to promote more responsive state-society relations, or other forms of development progress. Frequently cited examples of existing research are not based on recent, systematic comparative research and focus mainly on established democracies. The
- [Lessons from DDR programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-ddr-programmes/) - While the literature on DDR programmes, their evolution and DDR experiences in individual countries (notably in Africa), is considerable and broadly consistent, there is little on the long-term effectiveness of DDR interventions. DDR programming has evolved significantly over the past few decades in response to changing situations and emerging challenges; from traditional DDR programmes implemented
- [Factors supporting the emergence of democracies](https://gsdrc.org/publications/factors-supporting-the-emergence-of-democracies/) - This review of empirical case studies in this report suggests that, rather than a single theory to explain democratic transitions, a combination is usually applicable. In all cases it was a mix of factors that supported the emergence of democracies, due to time frames (some short-term, some long-standing) and also origin (some domestic, some external). This report
- [Libyan political economy](https://gsdrc.org/publications/libyan-political-economy/) - Much has changed in Libya since April 2014. However, Libya remains highly unstable and divided along multiple fracture lines, with a multitude of armed and non-armed groups. Given the fluidity of relations between these groups, literature on the country situation becomes quickly outdated. Libya has three rival claimants to power: a reconvened General National Congress (GNC) based in
- [Youth unemployment and violence](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-unemployment-and-violence/) - This literature review looks at whether there is evidence of a causal link between youth unemployment and violence in developing countries, focusing on crime, gang violence and domestic violence. It also looks at female youth unemployment, donor programming, and areas where more research is needed. A causal link between youth unemployment and violence is widely assumed, but
- [Linkages between taxation and stability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/linkages-between-taxation-and-stability/) - Tax reform agendas have traditionally focused on increasing public revenue in an economically efficient manner. However, Prichard (2010) argues that there is a case for linking revenue enhancement more explicitly to broader governance objectives. It should be noted that increased domestic revenue generation will only lead to improved development outcomes if the new revenue is
- [Decentralisation and cash transfer programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/decentralisation-and-cash-transfer-programmes/) - In many countries, national governments have delegated the implementation of public programmes, including cash transfers (CTs), to lower levels of the political administration. This rapid literature review found very little research or empirical evidence on the relationship between federal and provincial government in regard to cash transfer programmes. Much scholarship has focused on the broader challenges
- [Effects of respect for international  humanitarian law on displacement](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effects-of-respect-for-international-humanitarian-law-on-displacement/) - Much of the literature agrees that violence against civilians is the primary driver of displacement. However, while a few causalities can be considered established, authors frequently note that findings are either correlations (rather than causalities), or that the causalities need clarification. High-quality literature on population movements has long demonstrated that, even under violent conditions, displacement (like return)
- [Primary and secondary prevention of child protection violations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/primary-and-secondary-prevention-of-child-protection-violations/) - While the knowledge base on the prevention of child protection violations in low- or middle-income countries (LMICs) is limited, there are robust, promising findings. The majority of findings suggest that if the core elements of interventions are preserved, the translation of interventions from high-income countries (HICs) to LMICs can be effective. For instance, parenting training can
- [Humanitarian contingency plans for military operations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-contingency-plans-in-advance-of-military-operations/) - The majority of the literature seems to focus on humanitarian contingency planning for the invasion of Iraq in 2003, and other older cases such as Kosovo. It is difficult to identify what pre-planning may or may not have been undertaken, as political sensitivities and the tendency for military secrecy around large-scale military operations means that
- [Donor interventions on women’s political empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-interventions-on-womens-political-empowerment/) - The evidence base on donor interventions for women's political empowerment (WPE) in low- and middle-income countries is rigorous overall, but limited in size and scope. Feminist scholarship and practice have long emphasised that WPE is a multifaceted, complex process. However, evidence suggests that most donors have tended to build their approaches on oversimplified models of empowerment,
- [Methods and approaches for understanding behaviour change](https://gsdrc.org/publications/methods-and-approaches-to-understanding-behaviour-change/) - There are many theories about, and approaches to, behavioural change derived from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, communication and political science. These theories focus on a number of different levels: the enabling environment; the community; the interpersonal; or the individual. What matters is not only which behaviour change intervention or policy is implemented, but how. Key findings include the
- [Communicating peace agreements](https://gsdrc.org/publications/communicating-peace-agreements/) - There is limited research on the process of conducting such referendums and how to communicate the contents of peace agreements and constitutions to the electorate. The 1998 referendum in Northern Ireland has received the greatest attention in the literature. Available research focuses on factors that can influence whether a referendum is likely to be won, including discussion
- [International humanitarian law and peace processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/international-humanitarian-law-and-peace-processes/) - There is limited research and no empirical evidence exploring links between the degree to which IHL is respected (or ignored) and the success (or failure) of peace processes. The literature focuses on various related issues, including negotiating with non-state armed groups, the question of why conflict groups may comply with international humanitarian norms, and the
- [Online/social media as a pathway towards violent extremism in East Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/online-social-media-pathway-toward-violent-extremism-in-east-africa/) - Findings from a large and growing body of literature consistently highlight the increasingly sophisticated manner in which violent extremist organisations use the Internet and social media. However, there is relatively little empirical research to determine why and how individuals join violent extremist groups such as Al-Shabaab. Evidence is mixed and individual case studies are drawn predominantly
- [The role of online/social media in countering violent extremism in East Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-role-of-onlinesocial-media-in-countering-violent-extremism-in-east-africa/) - There is growing recognition amongst academics and policy makers that de-radicalisation and countering violent extremism programmes can be a more effective way of tackling extremism than purely militaristic approaches. Online and social media are useful in the dissemination of counter narratives in multiple languages, and to reach a broad, geographically diverse audience. The evidence base for
- [Transitional shelter in post-disaster contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transitional-shelter-in-post-disaster-contexts/) - Literature on approaches to transitional shelter in post-natural disaster contexts reflects the variety of different approaches and definitions, which complicate understandings of transitional shelter and lessons learned. There are three main approaches to transitional shelter, all of which incorporate disaster risk reduction measures to reduce household vulnerability: An incremental process rather than a multi-phased approach
- [Social assistance and idiosyncratic shocks](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-assistance-and-idiosyncratic-shocks/) - While there is a growing literature documenting and analysing how social assistance programmes can help in reducing income poverty and food insecurity, very little systematic empirical research has been done concerning their effectiveness in reducing individual and household vulnerability to idiosyncratic shocks. This rapid review focuses on cash transfers and public works programmes, as they have
- [The impact of protracted crises on attitudes and aspirations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-protracted-crises-on-attitudes-and-aspirations/) - The review draws on both academic and grey literature, which reflects the variety of approaches to understanding attitudes and aspirations and how they are formed. Of particular importance are discussions of social norms, networks and capital and how these shape relations between individuals and groups and thus influence the formation and evolution of attitudes and
- [Key actors, dynamics and issues of Libyan political economy](https://gsdrc.org/publications/key-actors-dynamics-and-issues-of-libyan-political-economy/) - Identify the key actors, power dynamics and issues of Libyan political economy after the Qadhafi regime.
- [Relationship between humanitarian and development aid](https://gsdrc.org/publications/relationship-between-humanitarian-and-development-aid/) - What is the available literature on the humanitarian-development relationship? If possible, identify conclusions, knowledge gaps and whether opinion has changed over time.
- [Impacts of social protection programmes on children](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impacts-of-social-protection-programmes-on-children/) - The impact of social protection on children is under-researched. Key findings and insights from the literature include: Multidimensional social protection systems have had positive impacts on addressing economic and human development, multiple vulnerabilities, and both social and economic inequities. Child-sensitive social protection programmes are more intentionally responsive to children’s rights and vulnerabilities, addressing the range of dimensions of
- [Priority gender issues in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Moldova, Serbia and Ukraine](https://gsdrc.org/publications/priority-gender-issues-in-bosnia-and-herzegovina-georgia-moldova-serbia-and-ukraine-with-consideration-to-gender-and-governance/) - Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) Despite some progress being made towards achieving gender equality in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), gender stereotyping and discrimination against women remain widespread. Key findings include: Awareness and implementation of the Law on Gender Equality (LGE) is weak. Gender stereotypes are prevalent in the media. Few women serve as political representatives. Addressing gender gaps in women’s
- [Extremist radicalisation towards non-state political violence in Jordan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/extremist-radicalisation-towards-non-state-political-violence-in-jordan/) - Within available evidence, there are a number of knowledge gaps on issues, social structures (such as gender), and geographic areas. To reflect this state of knowledge and to be precise about the sources of specific findings, this report presents references in the form of an annotated bibliography. Key findings and themes include: There has been
- [Religious leaders and the prevention of electoral violence](https://gsdrc.org/publications/religious-leaders-and-the-prevention-of-electoral-violence/) - There is limited literature specifically on the role of religious leaders in countering electoral and political violence, even less on ways in which to engage leaders in taking on such a role. While highlighting particular initiatives involving religious leaders during electoral cycles, this report also draws on literature that discusses the engagement of religious actors
- [Links between the rule of law and conflict and peace in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/links-between-the-rule-of-law-and-conflict-and-peace-in-afghanistan/) - A plurality of legal and judicial institutions exist in contemporary Afghanistan, but none meet minimal definitions of the rule of law – this is a matter of consensus. In particular, formal and informal laws and mechanisms do not enforce common rules equally over both elites and the less powerful, and men/boys and women/girls. The State
- [Subnational disaster risk management involving communities in Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/subnational-disaster-risk-management-involving-communities-in-nepal/) - In a bid to better tackle risk (exposure and vulnerabilities) and its management (capacities and resilience), domestic and foreign actors have promoted disaster risk management (DRM) that involve communities at the levels of regions, districts, municipalities, wards, or smaller-scale units such as schools. Key findings of the literature review include: Successful interventions have had notable
- [Impact of cash and asset transfers on child and forced marriage](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-cash-and-asset-transfers-on-child-and-forced-marriage/) - There are very few programmes that have directly tried to tackle forced and early marriage through cash or asset transfers. Of the programmes that have, many are fairly recent or are small-scale, making it difficult to assess long term impacts or draw lessons (Sinha and Young 2009). Some cash and asset transfer programmes have indirectly
- [Social protection, climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-protection-climate-change-adaptation-and-disaster-risk-reduction/) - This rapid literature review presents and synthesises the conceptual underpinnings and evidence on the relationship between social protection, climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Social protection instruments have been shown to be effective mechanisms for coping with shocks. The recent growth of social protection systems has shown that having systems in place before a
- [Public financial management evidence mapping](https://gsdrc.org/publications/public-financial-management-evidence-mapping/) - This paper reviews the extent of evidence for the effect of Public Financial Management (PFM) interventions on outcomes in low and middle income countries. It is based on a database of 197 studies compiled after a rigorous search process. The number of studies in the field was surprisingly low, reflecting a series of challenges in
- [Perceptions of different modalities of social assistance in the Levant](https://gsdrc.org/publications/perceptions-of-different-modalities-of-social-assistance-in-the-levant/) - Major international aid actors worldwide have been moving away from in-kind food aid and turning towards food vouchers and cash transfers. International agencies working in the Levant – i.e. the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt), Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria – have tried to reconcile this general shift with the historical, political and social specificities of social
- [Political economy of conflicts in Kyrgyzstan since the 2000s](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-conflicts-in-kyrgyzstan-since-the-2000s/) - A fundamental finding, widely shared among authors, is that it is not only the national level that matters, but also regional and local ones, in violent and non-violent conflicts. In recent and older history, local conflicts sometime develop into national ones. Other key findings of the literature review include: The root causes of both conflicts
- [Addressing case delays caused by multiple adjournments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/addressing-case-delays-caused-by-multiple-adjournments/) - A number of policy studies recommend measures to tackle case delays in developing countries, but relatively few of these recommendations are supported by rigorous empirical evidence. It also appears that data on court performance in developing countries is scarce. The exception to this is a series of World Bank studies, which measures the effectiveness of
- [Women and girls in forced and protracted displacement](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-and-girls-in-forced-and-protracted-displacement/) - There is general consensus in this grey and academic literature on the vulnerabilities faced by women and girls in forced and protracted displacement, although less is known about the opportunities they may have and the long-term impacts. Much of the recent evidence available focuses on displaced populations in Europe and countries neighbouring Syria. There is
- [Lessons learned from security-related programming in stabilisation and conflict-affected contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-learned-from-security-related-programming-in-stabilisation-and-conflict-affected-contexts/) - The challenging environment that ongoing conflict presents means that evidence based analysis of security sector initiatives is hard to find (Ball and Walker, 2015, p. 3) and the evidence base uncovered by this rapid literature review is small. Interviews with experts suggest that there may be more documented cases and lessons which are not publicly
- [The Central African Republic crisis](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-central-african-republic-crisis/) - Since March 2013, the Central African Republic (CAR) has been experiencing violent sectarian conflict. The conflict initially began between two well-defined rival groups that became increasingly fragmented, with competing agendas and interests. Further, the current transitional government lacks the capacity and political will to enforce any real political reforms. A number of measures and processes have been put in
- [Political dynamics and the effectiveness of aid programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-dynamics-and-the-effectiveness-of-aid-programmes/) - There is an increasing recognition amongst development scholars and practitioners that the obstacles to effective change in developing countries are not only related to technical or financial issues, but are also bound up with domestic politics and power relationships (DfID 2010a; DfID 2010b; Di John and Putzel, 2009; Leftwich: 2011; Parks and Cole, 2010; DFID
- [Humanitarian response in middle-income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-response-in-middle-income-countries/) - The literature uncovered by this rapid review indicates that there is very little evidence available about the way in which humanitarian response is carried out in middle income countries in comparison to low income contexts (or an amalgamation of the two). Where there have been evaluations of humanitarian response in middle income countries, they have
- [Seasonal vulnerability and risk calendar in Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/seasonal-vulnerability-and-risk-calendar-in-nepal/) - Nepal faces many seasonal disasters, including floods, landslides, fires, droughts and diseases. Findings of this rapid review indicates that: Most people are killed and injured during July–September which is in the monsoon period. Preparedness activities could take place in anticipation of seasonal disasters. The Tarai is vulnerable to floods, lightening, epidemics and drought in the
- [National Disaster Management Authorities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/national-disaster-management-authorities/) - This review has found, as did a Brookings literature review by Ferris (2014: 6), that there are few published comparative analyses of NDMAs, either on South Asia or worldwide. This review focuses on three cases from South Asia: Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, while it also includes brief information on Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. The key findings on
- [Early warning models for irregular migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/early-warning-models-for-irregular-migration/) - Estimating and predicting migrations has been a growing issue on the agenda of scholars and policymakers in the last decades. Forecasting irregular migration is of particular interest to policymakers as a tool enabling them to adapt policy to future trends. The meaning of irregular migration is not always clear as there is no universally accepted
- [Analysis of the Arab Spring](https://gsdrc.org/publications/analysis-of-the-arab-spring/) - There has been much analysis of the causes and rapid spread of the 2011 Arab Spring (or Arab uprisings). General consensus emerges on a combination of political, economic and social factors as being critical. These can be divided into: a) structural, long-standing, underlying factors that led to a build-up of popular anger and frustration in
- [Supporting reconciliation in post-conflict situations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/supporting-reconciliation-in-post-conflict-situations/) - The key literature on reconciliation approaches is not very recent. However, there is a reasonable body of more recent evidence, particularly from Africa, of on-ground experience of implementing diverse reconciliation mechanisms. Given that reconciliation must be an indigenous process, one which donors can support but not lead/impose (see below), the literature says little about specific
- [Facts about security and justice challenges](https://gsdrc.org/publications/facts-about-security-and-justice-challenges/) - Some of the global statistics included in this report are: A gap in access to justice exists for a majority of the people in the world, perhaps even as many as two thirds, according to an estimate by the Hague Institute for the Internationalization of Law. Preventing and redressing violence against women and girls is
- [Rapid fragility and migration  assessment for Somalia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rapid-fragility-and-migration-assessment-for-somalia/) - Somalia is a country of origin, destination, transit and return for a large number of people moving across the Horn of Africa region and beyond. Somalis have fled the country in large numbers since the late 1960s as a result of war, poverty and a lack of freedom. Protracted conflict and the absence of a
- [Private sector engagement in fragile and conflict-affected settings](https://gsdrc.org/publications/private-sector-engagement-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-settings/) - The private sector and private sector development (PSD) are considered to have a crucial role to play in contributing to economic recovery and addressing a number of drivers of fragility. Key findings of the review include: Fragile and conflict-affected settings pose challenges for engaging with the private sector. Significant internal and external imbalances are present,
- [Gender roles and opportunities for women in urban environments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-roles-and-opportunities-for-women-in-urban-environments/) - Key findings include: Urban women, on the whole, have greater access to services and infrastructure, more opportunities to engage in paid employment, and are subject to fewer sociocultural restrictions than women living in rural areas. However, they do not benefit equally with men in urban environments. They are disadvantaged in income poverty, asset poverty, time and power. Homogeneity and limited exposure in
- [Economic and market resilience before and after shocks](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-and-market-resilience-before-and-after-shocks/) - This report focuses on humanitarian and disaster risk reduction interventions that aim to reinforce economic resilience to anticipated shocks and support economic recovery after a shock, both in situations of natural disasters and conflict. There is limited evidence on the economic impacts of indirect market support interventions because: Providing indirect support to markets is a relatively
- [Economic impacts of humanitarian aid](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-impacts-of-humanitarian-aid/) - This review argues that few studies look at all aspects of economic impact of humanitarian aid. Individual studies tend to focus on one or two specific effects (e.g. on food inflation) rather than give an overall perspective of economic impact. The exception is humanitarian aid given in response to the recent Syria crisis, for which a
- [Voluntary voter registration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/voluntary-voter-registration/) - Voter registration is not just the technical implementation of an activity; it is a holistic political, administrative and practical process. Successful voluntary voter registration schemes tend to be: Responsive to local conditions including the political, economic and social context of the country hosting the election Realistic and affordable given the financial and administrative environment in
- [Migration and conflict in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/migration-and-conflict-in-afghanistan/) - Migration flows in Afghanistan includes external migration to neighbouring countries and across the world, and internal migration with many internally displaced people (IDPs). The last three decades of conflict have led to overlapping outflows and return of Afghan migrants driven by a complex set of factors. The literature on the topic is mostly qualitative and
- [Infomediaries and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/infomediaries-and-accountability/) - The term “infomediaries” – or information intermediaries – is used to refer to actors who “synthesize, translate, simplify and direct information on behalf of others”. There appears to be strong evidence of the link between free media and better governance and government responsiveness on a range of issues (e.g. public spending on education and health). A
- [Fragility, violence and criminality in the Gulf of Guinea](https://gsdrc.org/publications/fragility-violence-and-criminality-in-the-gulf-of-guinea/) - The Gulf of Guinea is rich in oil and gas, and a major international trade route. While oil wealth in the context of weak governance and under-development is creating tensions leading to criminality and violence, high geostrategic stakes provide the incentives for national, regional and international actors to seek solutions. This rapid literature review analyses
- [Rapid fragility and migration assessment for Ethiopia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rapid-fragility-and-migration-assessment-for-ethiopia/) - Migratory context and drivers: Until the early 1990s, Ethiopia was one of the largest sources of refugees and migrants in Africa; since then it has become the largest refugee-hosting country in Africa. Compared with many other countries in Africa, Ethiopia has a relatively low international migration rate. Analysis anticipates Ethiopia may experience rising outward migration
- [Rapid fragility and migration assessment for Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rapid-fragility-and-migration-assessment-for-sudan/) - Sudan is a source, transit, and destination country for migrants. Sudanese migrants are a mixed group of refugees and asylum seekers, economic migrants and, to a lesser extent, foreign students. The majority are men aged 25–40, and they come from a wide range of socioeconomic and educational backgrounds. The majority of refugees and asylum seekers
- [Rapid fragility and migration assessment for Eritrea](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rapid-fragility-and-migration-assessment-for-eritrea/) - Eritreans have fled the country in large numbers since the 1960s as a result of war, poverty and a lack of freedom. The 30-year long Independence war produced a diaspora of over a million people, mostly based in Sudan, the Middle East, Europe and the US. Significant numbers displaced during this war returned after Independence
- [Mainstreaming disaster risk management](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mainstreaming-disaster-risk-management/) - Positive developments in the process of DRM mainstreaming have involved: The designation or creation of a high-level agency/department/ministry to lead DRM mainstreaming Working groups or committees to coordinate all the stakeholders Cross-sectoral DRM strategies The incorporation of core DRM concerns in development and/or infrastructure projects The de-compartmentalisation, or at least coordination, of DRM, Climate Change Adaptation
- [Micro levies for global public goods](https://gsdrc.org/publications/micro-levies-for-global-public-goods/) - One type of innovative development finance is the micro levy, also referred to in donor literature as taxes, dues and solidarity levies for development. Donor proponents of this type of innovative finance for development make the case for linking new taxes on globalised activities (finance, travel etc) or global public bads (carbon emissions) to financing
- [Evidence on programmes’ effectiveness on horizontal political inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-programmes-effectiveness-on-horizontal-political-inclusion/) - There is very little evidence on what role donors can play in making political settlements more horizontally inclusive. The state of research on this area remains theoretical and not empirical, although there is a clear normative consensus that international actors need to consider inclusivity in political settlements. The three areas of inquiry in this report
- [Conflict analysis of Muslim Mindanao](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-muslim-mindanao/) - The Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) in the Philippines was founded in 1989. It consists of five provinces – Maguindanao, Lanao del Sur, Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi. Conflict between Moro groups seeking an independent state in Mindanao, and the Government of the Philippines (GPH) has been ongoing for four decades. After numerous attempts to resolve
- [The effects of Russian intervention  in the Syria crisis](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-effects-of-russian-intervention-in-the-syria-crisis/) - The linked Russian political-military initiative in Syria – with a bombing campaign from 30 September, support of Iranian-Hezbollah-Syrian military ground offensives, and convening of international conferences to try and secure the Assad regime – has changed the dynamics of the 56-month Syrian conflict. The effects of the intervention are significant, and are both country-specific, inside
- [Effectiveness of UK civil society sector in building support for international development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-uk-civil-society-sector-in-building-support-for-international-development/) - A priority for the development community in donor countries is improving understanding of public attitudes towards international development and support for aid. UK civil society organisations (CSOs) have used a variety of strategies to build support for development. Available evidence on their effectiveness suggests some success in short-term popular mobilisation national and global campaigns such
- [Islamist radicalisation and terrorism in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/publications/islamist-radicalisation-and-terrorism-in-tanzania/) - The extent and drivers of Islamist radicalisation and terrorism in Tanzania.
- [Building social cohesion in post-conflict situations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/building-social-cohesion-in-post-conflict-situations/) - The approaches covered in this report include community-driven development, job creation, social protection and education. Whilst in theory there are strong links between these and social cohesion, there is very little rigorous empirical evidence to verify these links. More specifically, the literature highlights that: Community-driven development (CDD) programmes promote social cohesion through community participation in decision-making,
- [Evidence on the comparative cost efficiency and effectiveness of varying social assistance modalities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-the-comparative-cost-efficiency-and-effectiveness-of-varying-social-assistance-modalities/) - There is limited literature that rigorously measures cost efficiency of programme modalities, or that compares modalities. The key points raised in the literature include the following: Transfer appropriateness is context-specific and determined by multiple factors including programme objectives Cash transfers are generally found to be the least-cost modality – which suggests opportunities to expand coverage or build
- [Mobile phone and social media interventions for youth development outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mobile-phone-and-social-media-interventions-for-youth-development-outcomes/) - Young people are often ‘first adopters’ of new technologies, particularly broadcast technologies such as mobile phones. The upsurge in ICT usage has had a direct impact on increasing civic engagement among youth, providing new avenues through which they are informed, shape opinions, organise, collaborate and take action. A number of barriers and challenges remain that
- [Engaging stakeholders in areas of cross-border infrastructure investment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/engaging-stakeholders-in-areas-of-cross-border-infrastructure-investment/) - This rapid review of the literature identifies a number of best practices for engaging with a range of stakeholders in contexts where trans-boundary infrastructure investment occurs. It outlines general guidelines and best practices identified by internationally recognised bodies, and presents specific evidence from the sectors of water infrastructure and energy (e.g. dams/hydro). Trans-boundary or cross-border
- [Increasing youth participation in accountability mechanisms](https://gsdrc.org/publications/increasing-youth-participation-in-accountability-mechanisms/) - The literature argues that empowering, organising, capacity-building and partnering with young people can contribute to good governance and improved accountability of governments (DANIDA, 2007; UNDP, 2006; Walton, 2010). To this end, governments, donors and NGOs have supported a variety of interventions that encourage youth participation both formally and informally. The extent to which these interventions
- [Evidence for the added value of an inclusive societies approach](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-for-the-added-value-of-an-inclusive-societies-approach/) - There is little direct evidence on the added value of an inclusive societies approach for increasing the effectiveness of poverty reduction efforts. The state of research in this area is predominantly theoretical and not empirical, although there is a clear normative consensus that poverty reduction and sustained economic growth is contingent upon the development of
- [Urban poverty in Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urban-poverty-nepal/) - In presenting urban poverty trends and data in Nepal, key findings include: Urban poverty is becoming more pervasive in Nepal: The poverty rate is increasing in urban areas, whilst it is declining in rural areas (ADB, 2013; UNDP, 2014). Urban poverty rates vary substantially across Nepal: Urban areas in the hill ecological zone are the least
- [Links between education and peace](https://gsdrc.org/publications/links-between-education-and-peace/) - Education is a significant contributor to peace, and appears in two of the 24 indicators in the Positive Peace Index produced by the Institute for Economics and Peace. Education can lead to peace and be a part of ‘building back better’ by supporting the transformation of the security situation, political institutions, economic regeneration and social
- [Disaster risk financing and insurance in the Pacific](https://gsdrc.org/publications/disaster-risk-financing-and-insurance-in-the-pacific/) - The Pacific region has low insurance penetration compared with other parts of the world. General (non-life) insurance penetration for Pacific countries ranged between 0.5% (Indonesia) and 2.5% (Samoa) in 2012. The mean penetration rate for Pacific countries for which data could be obtained was 1.6%, which is considerably less than the rate in Australia (2.2%), half
- [Conflict analysis of Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-kenya/) - Kenya is a large multi-ethnic country, with over 40 different ethnic groups and many overlapping conflicts. It has high levels of sexual and gender-based violence and of intercommunal violence; low levels of persistent violence; cycles of election-related violence; and increasing numbers of terrorist attacks. The incidence, gravity and intensity of violence have all increased in recent years.
- [Urbanisation and urban growth in Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urbanisation-and-urban-growth-in-nepal/) - Nepal is one of the ten least urbanised countries in the world. However, it is also one of the top ten fastest urbanising countries. In 2014, the level of urbanisation was 18.2 per cent, with an urban population of 5,130,000, and a rate of urbanisation of 3 per cent (UN DESA, 2014). For the period
- [External support for retention allowances](https://gsdrc.org/publications/external-support-for-retention-allowances/) - Retention allowances can come in the form of separate payments or salary top-ups. Donors have generally been reluctant to support retention allowances because they feel salaries are a government responsibility and because of concerns over the sustainability of such support. However, the scale of the crisis has sometimes been so great that they have stepped
- [Curriculum development in fragile states to encourage peace and reduction of conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/curriculum-development-in-fragile-states-to-encourage-peace-and-reduction-of-conflict/) - Research on education and conflict shows that education systems are not politically neutral but are an important part of the political economy that can exacerbate or mitigate conflict (Novelli et al., 2014; Bush and Saltareilli, 2000). The curriculum can be used as a vehicle to promote dominant ideologies. There are numerous instances where school curricula
- [Restrictions on humanitarian access](https://gsdrc.org/publications/restrictions-on-humanitarian-access/) - Humanitarian access is a challenge in many armed conflicts, both in areas controlled by state and non-state actors. While there is some general guidance on strategies to address such access constraints, there is very little publicly documented evidence on how humanitarian organisations have overcome specific instances of governments and de facto authorities’ attempts to control,
- [Conflict drivers, international responses, and the outlook for peace in Mali: A literature review](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-drivers-international-responses-and-the-outlook-for-peace-in-mali-a-literature-review/) - This literature review aims to reflect relevant empirical and policy analysis together with more up-to-date commentary on the situation in Mali, as of January 2013. The conflict in Mali is highly complex and fluid: the situation with regards to the various groups engaged in conflict is developing on a daily basis, as are the responses
- [CSOs holding governments to account](https://gsdrc.org/publications/csos-holding-governments-to-account/) - This report summarises interventions by more than 30 civil society organisations (CSOs) to increase government accountability in varied sectors and contexts. CSOs use a wide variety of different media to gather information from citizens, which they then use to press for accountability. Their strategies and tactics for engaging with local and national government include: informal networking; formal engagement in parliamentary committees; high-profile meetings with
- [National humanitarian response](https://gsdrc.org/publications/national-humanitarian-response/) - National governments have the primary responsibility for leading and coordinating humanitarian response in their countries. Where they have the capacity, state-led responses have been evaluated to be more effective than responses led by others. However, international actors often fail to work effectively with national authorities. The cases studies analysed in this review indicate that national
- [Security and justice evidence mapping](https://gsdrc.org/publications/security-and-justice-evidence-mapping/) - This report identifies empirical evidence on the outcomes of security and justice (S&J) interventions, and provides a visual overview of its findings in an evidence gap map. The evidence gaps appear where outputs and outcomes are less tangible and more difficult to operationalise and measure. The evidence is scarce for a number of justice-specific output and outcome categories, but stronger evidence can
- [Deteriorating Governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/deteriorating-governance/) - What is the literature on deteriorating governance, including evidence on what can be learnt from past experience (1980s, 90s, 2000s) about how the international community can effectively intervene to support a reversal of deteriorating governance situations?
- [Political Economy and Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-and-governance-in-the-democratic-republic-of-congo-drc/) - Please provide an overview of the recent academic, policy and practitioner literature on governance and political economy in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
- [Political Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-trends-in-sub-saharan-africa/) - Provide data from the World Governance Indicators dataset, the Ibrahim Index, Freedom in the World, Afrobarometer and Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP) between 2000/01 and 2010/11 to present an analysis of trends in sub-Saharan Africa over the last decade of i) the number of electoral democracies ii) the quality of electoral democracies iii) the nature of political space (meaning freedom, civil rights, political rights, accountability) and iv) the level of conflict (numbers of conflicts and number of people affected), and any interactions between these dimensions, in this region.
- [Theory of Change Approaches to Post-conflict Governance Programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/theory-of-change-approaches-to-post-conflict-governance-programming/) - Identify and review cases where the Theory of Change approach has been applied in the design and/or evaluation of governance sector programmes in post-conflict and fragile developing contexts. Where possible, focus on governance programmes relating to public sector management, accountability and public financial management for improved service delivery. Identify particular challenges in applying the Theory of Change model to governance sector interventions.
- [Effectiveness of African regional professional associations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-african-regional-professional-associations/) - Provide examples of African regional professional associations considered effective. What explains their success and what role does leadership play?
- [Indonesian and Philippine engagement in South-South and Triangular Cooperation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/indonesian-and-philippine-engagement-in-south-south-and-triangular-cooperation/) - How do middle-income aid recipients like Indonesia and the Philippines engage in South-South and triangular cooperation?
- [Civil Service Reform in Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-service-reform-in-rwanda/) - Please collate the key literature on civil service reform and capacity development in the public sector in Rwanda in the past ten years, summarising the main debates, successes and current challenges.
- [Evaluation Capacity Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evaluation-capacity-development/) - Strengthening evaluation capacity requires addressing constraints on both the supply and demand of evaluation. Is there existing evidence of: A) Approaches that are more successful for developing (or building) capacity for evaluation supply in developing countries? B) What approaches are effective at building evaluation demand and the use of evaluation evidence? C) How endogenous public, civil society, academic, private sector, and other suppliers/commissioners can be strengthened? D) What financial support mechanisms (e.g. challenge funds, project or programme support, etc.) are best suited for building capacity without undermining local ownership?
- [Research Capacity Strengthening](https://gsdrc.org/publications/research-capacity-strengthening/) - Please compile and summarise the main findings from published and grey literature (including donor evaluations) on research capacity strengthening interventions (both scientific and social science research capacity).
- [Impact and VFM of Capacity Building Support for Conflict Parties in Negotiations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-and-vfm-of-capacity-building-support-for-conflict-parties-in-negotiations/) - Provide an assessment of the impact, including where possible value for money (VFM), of international support to national (government) capacity-building and rebel/opposition capacity building for (peace) negotiations based on evidence from key case studies including, if evidence is available, the Occupied Palestinian Territories, Northern Ireland and Sudan.
- [Capacity building for social protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/capacity-building-for-social-protection/) - Identify literature on impacts and lessons from capacity building of the social protection sector. Include literature on both programmes and systems if available.
- [State-citizen relations in North Africa since 2011](https://gsdrc.org/publications/state-citizen-relations-in-north-africa-since-2011/) - There is a limited evidence base on the changes after the Arab uprisings. A great deal of literature focuses on democratisation. Literature from the first few years after 2011 tends to be optimistic about potential change, while the later literature often notes reversals or unfulfilled opportunities. Key findings include: The expected democratic changes have largely
- [Drivers of irregular migration in North Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/drivers-of-irregular-migration-in-north-africa/) - Irregular migration is the movement of people that takes place outside the regulatory norms of the sending, transit and receiving countries (IOM definition). A complex array of factors drives irregular migration. Most literature states that economic and conflict-related reasons, along with social networks and social support, are the major factors influencing migration. Economic migrants usually
- [Development outcomes of the political and social inclusion of young people](https://gsdrc.org/publications/development-outcomes-of-the-political-and-social-inclusion-of-young-people/) - Qualitative case studies provide evidence – albeit limited, mixed and context-specific – of a wide range of development outcomes from the political and social inclusion of young people. The key findings are: Some development actors see youth participation as an end in itself – children and young people’s enjoyment of meaningful participation is an intrinsic
- [Evidence on outcomes of an inclusive societies approach](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-outcomes-of-an-inclusive-societies-approach/) - This annotated bibliography covers 80 studies that include some evidence of inclusive outcomes. The studies range across sectors, such as the political sphere, health, and education; across groups, such as people with disabilities, women and ethnic minorities; and across indicators, such as increased growth, school enrolment, and policy changes. Several types of intervention stand out as being effective for
- [Benefits to society of an inclusive societies approach](https://gsdrc.org/publications/benefits-to-society-of-an-inclusive-societies-approach/) - There are many claims for the benefits to society of an inclusive societies approach across a broad range of societal outcomes. The anticipated development benefits of inclusive societies are increasingly present in donor policy thinking and global dialogues, including the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goal framework. The desired impacts range from economic benefits to other development
- [Contemporary conflict analysis of Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/contemporary-conflict-analysis-of-iraq/) - This paper notes that conflict in Iraq has become increasingly sectarian, and has affected minorities the most. Among its findings it highlights roots of the violence: Sunni alienation following the ‘sectarianisation’ of the political system; feelings of insecurity as a result of sectarian militias and the increasingly Shia make-up of the Iraqi Security Forces; and
- [Conflict analysis of Liberia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-liberia/) - It is over ten years since Liberia’s final peace agreement was signed in 2003, putting an end to 14 years of violent civil wars. This paper finds that current levels of overt conflict in Liberia are relatively low, and there has been no large-scale violence since the end of the second war. However, it also
- [Conflict analysis of Mauritania](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-mauritania/) - Mauritania is a large, mostly desert territory, populated by 3.2 million inhabitants and with a history of military rule and regime change through coup d’états. It has a history of inter-ethnic conflict and politicisation of identity with a notable border dispute in 1989 between Mauritania and Senegal resulting in violence and the deportation of non-Arabic
- [Improving access to menstrual hygiene products](https://gsdrc.org/publications/improving-access-to-menstrual-hygiene-products/) - The market for menstrual hygiene products in developing countries is expanding rapidly, driven both by private demand and by public efforts to improve girls’ educational outcomes and women’s health and dignity. However, many women and girls cannot consistently afford the monthly cost of disposable menstrual products and revert to less hygienic solutions when facing cash
- [Refugee return in protracted refugee situations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/refugee-return-in-protracted-refugee-situations/) - Voluntary repatriation/return is seen as one of the durable solutions to protracted refugee situations and is the ‘preferred’ solution of the international community. Successful or sustainable return processes require the reintegration of refugees, which can be complicated by their protracted refugee experience and conditions in the country of origin. Evidence from case studies indicates that
- [Women in politics and the public sector in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-in-politics-and-the-public-sector-in-tanzania/) - The body of literature on women’s engagement in politics in Tanzania is relatively small, consisting of journal articles and government and NGO reports. Key topics covered by the literature include: Special seats for women: A quota system was introduced in 1985 to increase the number of women in parliament. Two journal articles by the same author
- [Youth transitions into adulthood in protracted crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-transitions-into-adulthood-in-protracted-crises/) - Protracted crises can have a significant impact on youth transitions into adulthood, both by delaying and accelerating them. Waithood is a term commonly used to describe the state in which youths find themselves when their transitions to adulthood are delayed. There is a significant body of literature on youth transitions into adulthood in developing countries,
- [Changing attitudes and behaviours in relation to gender equality](https://gsdrc.org/publications/changing-attitudes-and-behaviours-in-relation-to-gender-equality/) - Please provide a review of the literature on awareness/behaviour change strategies aimed at achieving greater gender equality, highlighting evidence of impact.
- [Urbanisation and Governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urbanisation-and-governance/) - What are the key governance issues and trends in relation to urbanisation? This should include, but not focus exclusively on, urban governance issues.
- [Regional progress of the world’s girls and women](https://gsdrc.org/publications/regional-progress-of-the-worlds-girls-and-women/) - What regions have made the most progress in achieving gender equality, and where has progress being slow? Key findings include the following: As the world’s poorest region, Sub-Saharan Africa is performing poorly on many gender equality indicators. For example, it has the highest rates of maternal and newborn mortality, and also the lowest proportion of deliveries
- [Global progress of the world’s girls and women](https://gsdrc.org/publications/global-progress-of-the-worlds-girls-and-women/) - Globally, remarkable progress has been made in achieving gender equality in some areas, while progress has been slow and stagnant in other areas. Findings include the following: Substantial progress has been made in closing the gender gap in primary enrolment, with two thirds of all countries in the developing world achieving gender parity in this area.
- [Political economy of Libya after the Qadhafi regime](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-libya-after-the-qadhafi-regime/) - Present an annotated bibliography of key references on the political economy of Libya. Focus on references about the post-Qadhafi situation; a selection of key pre-2011 references can be used as relevant. Provide an overview of the key issues and suggest additional references.
- [Gender-related results in security and justice policy and programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-related-results-in-security-and-justice-policy-and-programming/) - What is the evidence from security and justice programming and policy around achievement of gender-related results and demonstrating gender sensitivity, and what are the lessons for improving practice in future? Key facets: (1) (The resolution of) unequal/disadvantageous property, economic, and inheritance rights; (2) Women's empowerment and representation within security and justice service delivery (successes and failures).
- [The multilateral system’s contribution to peace and security](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-multilateral-systems-contribution-to-peace-and-security/) - Literature review: what does recent analysis suggest about the contribution of the multilateral system to international development goals on peace and security?
- [Radicalisation of diaspora communities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/radicalisation-of-diaspora-communities/) - What factors (including host and home country factors) influence the radicalisation or deradicalisation of diaspora communities?
- [Education and building legitimacy during conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/education-and-building-legitimacy-during-conflict/) - This rapid review summarises the available evidence of how far support to education has strengthened governance during conflict. The main points made by the literature on education delivery during conflict and strengthened legitimacy for those delivering it includes: Service delivery and state legitimacy: expectations for services vary and this has an impact on the relative
- [Impact and implications of the Ebola crisis](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-and-implications-of-the-ebola-crisis/) - What are the political, economic, social and security implications of the Ebola crisis, with a particular focus on Sierra Leone?
- [Donor action on women’s employment in ASEAN countries - update](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-action-on-womens-employment-in-asean-countries-complement/) - Provide an indicative overview of donors’ attempts to improve women’s workforce participation and conditions in states that are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Look at recent donor action (past 5 years) and current one. Ideally, provide information on results and impact; where this is not available, describe the activities or programmes. If possible: 1. provide examples of donors’ attempts to address inequity in the workplace and workforce, and to support women entrepreneurs; 2. disaggregate information between donors and technical agencies, and between projects focused on women’s empowerment and those integrating gender equality concerns; 3. consider of donor-funded work by NGOs and private sector foundations.
- [Donor action on women’s employment in ASEAN countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-action-on-womens-employment-in-asean-countries/) - Provide an indicative overview of donors’ recent and current attempts to improve women’s participation and conditions in the ASEAN workforce. Where possible, provide examples of donors’ attempts to address inequity in the workplace and workforce, and to support women entrepreneurs.
- [Social protection programmes supporting women survivors of domestic violence](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-protection-programmes-supporting-women-survivors-of-domestic-violence/) - What are the lessons learnt from social protection/cash transfer programmes which target women survivors of domestic/family violence?
- [Political Economy and Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-and-governance-in-the-democratic-republic-of-congo/) - This report is an update of a 2010 report, ‘Political Economy and Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)’, and is based on some of the recent literature on governance and political economy in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The report outlines the following key governance and political economy issues discussed in the literature:
- [Poverty eradication in Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/poverty-eradication-in-iraq/) - Despite being an oil-rich, lower-middle income country, poverty remains prevalent in Iraq. This rapid review looks at the recent literature on poverty in Iraq and identifies the barriers to, and opportunities for, poverty reduction and eradication. The literature indicates that: 3.9 per cent of people in Iraq are living in extreme poverty (2012). 18.9 per
- [Incentives from donor funding mechanisms for civil society organisations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/incentives-from-donor-funding-mechanisms-for-civil-society-organisations/) - This review examines the evidence on some of the outcomes of donor funding to civil society organisations (CSOs). However, it is difficult to attribute causality to specific funding mechanisms, and few evaluations look directly at this issue. Scattered evidence in donor evaluations does reveal some commonalities and lessons: The literature presents a strong message from
- [Impact of multilateral organisations on humanitarian outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-multilateral-organisations-on-humanitarian-outcomes/) - Even with strong evidence on programme impact, it is hard to attribute humanitarian results directly to multilateral organisations’ (MLOs) or specific forms of aid architecture. In an emergency context, there tend to be many actors and interventions and it is difficult to show a direct chain of causality between specific funding streams or organisations and
- [Transporting materials to schools](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transporting-materials-to-schools/) - Most programmes have faced similar challenges and limitations in transporting materials to schools, and have found transferable approaches to what works. These are: Financing: the burden of paying for delivery falls on different actors. The literature is clear that either the government or the publishers should cover the costs, but often it has been teachers
- [Conflict dynamics and potential for peacebuilding in Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-dynamics-and-potential-for-peacebuilding-in-iraq/) - This report is an update of the information available in the October 2014 GSDRC Contemporary conflict analysis of Iraq. Since the beginning of 2014, the extreme jihadist group ISIL, who are also active in Syria, has gained control of territory in the mainly Sunni and contested areas of Iraq, although government forces, the Kurdish Peshmerga,
- [Lessons learned for national state entities for recovery and reconstruction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-learned-for-national-state-entities-for-recovery-and-reconstruction/) - Key indicative lessons learned for national state entities from the literature reviewed include: Structure Develop national recovery frameworks in advance of disasters. Appoint a lead agency with a built-in end date, a clear legal mandate and an experienced politically aware leader. Integrate the immediate humanitarian action into the government-coordinated recovery phase. Fully engage all national
- [Influencing laws and guidelines on humanitarian assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/influencing-laws-and-guidelines-on-humanitarian-assistance/) - International humanitarian law (IHL) and international disaster response laws, rules and principles (IDRL) set out rules and guidance on how to access affected populations, and how to deliver humanitarian assistance, during armed conflicts and disasters. This includes guidance on customs clearance and the taxation of relief, among other areas. IDRL is a fragmented collection of
- [Non-state provision of skills development  in South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/non-state-provision-of-skills-development-in-south-asia/) - Development practitioners increasingly see skills development as a way to improve the employment and incomes of the poor. However, findings on the effectiveness of such trainings are typically mixed. Only programmes that entail linkages with the labour market have had a significant impact. Even with such linkages in place, what has worked and what has
- [Impact of external assistance on local-level peace settlements  in the Middle East and North Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-external-assistance-on-local-level-peace-settlements-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/) - Armed conflicts have inflicted massive suffering and material losses on the populations of several MENA countries since 2011 (or earlier). At the same time, local peace settlements in delimited geographic areas have been reached in several of these contexts. This rapid review of the literature presents evidence on positive and negative impact in MENA. Available
- [Impact of Cash Transfers](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-cash-transfers/) - What is the evidence on the impact of conditional and non-conditional cash transfers (i) generally and (ii) in particular on educational indicators? Information on low-income contexts or other African experience would be particularly valuable.
- [Financing and Cost-effectiveness of Cash Transfer Schemes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/financing-and-cost-effectiveness-of-cash-transfer-schemes/) - What does the evidence base on the costing, financing and cost effectiveness of cash transfer schemes tell us?
- [Beneficiaries' perspectives in research on cash transfer and social protection programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/beneficiaries-perspectives-in-research-on-cash-transfer-and-social-protection-programmes/) - What research, academic, NGO or government, has included the perspectives of beneficiaries of cash transfer or social protection programmes in developing countries and what results have emerged and how robust has been this participatory qualitative evidence? Are there any lessons learnt from the approaches taken to such participatory research?
- [Theories of change for cash transfers](https://gsdrc.org/publications/theories-of-change-for-cash-transfers/) - Identify any theories of change developed for cash transfer programmes in low-income countries.
- [Social inclusion in productive safety net programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-inclusion-in-productive-safety-net-programmes/) - What has worked in achieving social inclusion in labour-intensive productive safety net programmes in the agricultural sector? Consider analysis, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Where possible, draw on evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa.
- [Evidence of impact of emergency cash transfers on gender and protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-of-impact-of-emergency-cash-transfers-on-gender-and-protection/) - What is the level and type of evidence on the impact of emergency cash transfers on gender and protection?
- [Delivering education during conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/delivering-education-during-conflict/) - Education is important for children’s wellbeing, development and future prospects, as well as for a country’s peace, stability and economic development; and is often a priority for those directly affected. Despite the challenges of delivering education during active conflict it is possible; and UN agencies, NGOs, and donors have supported governments, communities, and local authorities
- [Role of development assistance in countering extremism and terrorism](https://gsdrc.org/publications/role-of-development-assistance-in-countering-extremism-and-terrorism/) - The relationship between development assistance and security has attracted particular attention since the post-2001 ‘global war on terror’. Heightened international concern about religious extremism has placed the development-security nexus into a renewed focus, with increasing recognition of the links between development, governance, and terrorist threat. Drawing from the available literature, approaches to tackling violent extremism
- [Comprehensive sexuality education](https://gsdrc.org/publications/comprehensive-sexuality-education/) - Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) has strong support in the international discourse, and is supported by a relatively robust evidence base. In general, the evidence suggests that CSE has positive impacts on behaviour change, such as increased condom use, girls’ empowerment and delayed sexual debut. This is achieved through increasing knowledge and changing attitudes. There is
- [Impact of communication campaigns to deter irregular migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-communication-campaigns-to-deter-irregular-migration/) - Understanding the decisions to leave is a key part of the success of communication campaigns to deter irregular migration. However there is very little evidence on the impact and effectiveness of these campaigns and anecdotal evidence suggests that they have limited, if any, effect on migrants’ decisions to leave. Irregular migration is the movement of
- [Urban governance in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urban-governance-in-tanzania/) - Urbanisation has been increasing quickly in Tanzania with population growth in cities twice that of the national rate. Despite this, there is a small body of knowledge about urban governance comparative to the large number of references on urbanization in the country. This literature predominantly focuses on Dar es Salaam, and fails to disaggregate findings
- [Implementing integrated financial management information systems](https://gsdrc.org/publications/implementing-integrated-financial-management-information-systems/) - What do we know about what has worked, what has failed, and why? What lessons does the literature identify? Expensive integrated financial management information systems (IFMIS) have frequently failed to realise the promised benefits of reforming public financial management (PFM). There is a dearth of conclusive evidence to explain why this is the case. IFMIS are
- [Practical guidance to integrate gender into public financial management](https://gsdrc.org/publications/practical-guidance-to-integrate-gender-into-public-financial-management/) - What practical guidance is available on integrating gender into public financial management systems in developing countries? What is the evidence on what has worked and what has not worked? If possible, provide specific guidance on the different parts of PFM systems.
- [Social media and governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-media-and-governance/) - What is the recent evidence on the impact of social media on governance of social, political, economic bodies? How is social media regulated and governed in low-income and fragile contexts?
- [Counter- and de-radicalisation with returning foreign fighters](https://gsdrc.org/publications/counter-and-de-radicalisation-with-returning-foreign-fighters/) - Identify examples of counter or de-radicalisation work with returning foreign fighters in conflict-affected and nearby states. Include examples of programmes where returnees are involved in counter or de-radicalisation programmes. Present the lessons learned emerging from these projects and evaluations of them.
- [Initiatives to strengthen rule of law in Sindh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/initiatives-to-strengthen-rule-of-law-in-sindh/) - Please provide evidence of local, national or international initiatives to strengthen rule of law in Pakistan, with a focus on initiatives in Sindh. What lessons can be learnt from the literature on these initiatives, with a focus on factors contributing to success?
- [Perception surveys in fragile and conflict affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/perception-surveys-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - What recent work has been done on assessing the quality and limitations of using perception surveys in fragile and conflict affected states?
- [Civic education  approaches and efficacy](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civic-education-approaches-and-efficacy/) - What approaches have been taken to civic education programmes, including in school curricula and more broadly, and what evidence is there for their efficacy? What does the literature say about the efficacy of civic education in incentivising civic behaviour in the context of strong financial incentives in society for non-civic behaviour?
- [Ethnic minority public sector employment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/ethnic-minority-public-sector-employment/) - Please provide an overview of initiatives in developing countries which seek to provide targeted recruitment, professional development and retention for indigenous or ethnic minority employees. Please focus on public sector agencies/positions that are responsible for managing public policy advice and government programmes.
- [Harmful traditional practices in diaspora communities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/harmful-traditional-practices-in-diaspora-communities/) - What is the evidence of the continuation or cessation of (or changes to) harmful traditional practices by diaspora communities contrary to trajectories of change in their countries of origin. Please include evidence on female genital mutilation/cutting and child, early and forced marriage.
- [Longitudinal social research in Ethiopia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/longitudinal-social-research-in-ethiopia/) - Identify studies involving longitudinal social research in Ethiopia
- [Problem-driven iterative approaches and wider governance reform](https://gsdrc.org/publications/problem-driven-iterative-approaches-and-wider-governance-reform/) - Identify evidence which suggests that problem-driven, iterative approaches to public sector reform can deliver more substantial, wider, long-term governance reform.
- [Capacity development at the national level in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/capacity-development-at-the-national-level-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - What is the current thinking on best practice in capacity development for national-level government institutions in fragile and conflict-affected states? Identify common forms of support for capacity development provided by donors as well as innovative approaches being trialled, and evaluations of programmes where available. What are the key lessons learned? Afghanistan is of particular interest.
- [Social protection accountability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-protection-accountability/) - What demand and supply side tools, mechanisms and approaches have been used to improve accountability in social assistance programmes, and what is the evidence of their impacts? Where accountability mechanisms have been built into social assistance programmes, what have their stated objectives been (i.e. improving quality of delivery, reducing fraud and corruption, empowerment, or others)?
- [Links between women’s empowerment (or lack of) and outbreaks of violent conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/links-between-womens-empowerment-or-lack-of-and-outbreaks-of-violent-conflict/) - What evidence exists for links between women’s empowerment (or lack of) and outbreaks of violent conflict?
- [Conflict analysis of Tunisia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-tunisia/) - The revolution in Tunisia in 2011 – the first political upheaval of what became the ‘Arab Spring’ – marked the end of over five decades of authoritarian rule, first by post-colonial leader Habib Bourguiba and then by Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali. The country’s first democratic elections, held in March 2011, produced a coalition government comprising
- [Increased religiosity among women in muslim majority countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/increased-religiosity-among-women-in-muslim-majority-countries/) - It has hitherto been assumed, at least by western development practitioners, that women's rights are best attained through secularist liberal interpretations of equality, of the sort reflected in conventions such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Yet what does increasing use of the veil and greater religious
- [Safe spaces for girls: six-country mapping](https://gsdrc.org/publications/safe-spaces-for-girls-six-country-mapping/) - Provide a mapping of the existing good practice girl safe space programmes in Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania and Bangladesh.
- [State capacity and non-state service provision in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/state-capacity-and-non-state-service-provision-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - How can governments effectively engage with non-state providers (NSPs) of basic services where capacity is weak? This paper examines whether and how fragile and conflict affected states can co-ordinate, finance, and set and apply standards for the provision of basic services by NSPs. It explores ways of incrementally engaging the state, beginning with activities that
- [Quantitative and qualitative methods in impact evaluation and measuring results](https://gsdrc.org/publications/quantitative-and-qualitative-methods-in-impact-evaluation-and-measuring-results-3/) - There has been a renewed interest in impact evaluation in recent years amongst development agencies and donors. Additional attention was drawn to the issue recently by a Center for Global Development (CGD) report calling for more rigorous impact evaluations, where ‘rigorous’ was taken to mean studies which tackle the selection bias aspect of the attribution
- [Political settlements](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-settlements-2/) - Why do similar sets of formal institutions often have such divergent outcomes? An analysis of political settlements goes some way to answering this question by bringing into focus the contending interests that exist within any state, which constrain and facilitate institutional and developmental change. It provides a framework to analyse how the state is linked
- [The impact of the financial crisis on conflict and state fragility in sub-saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-the-financial-crisis-on-conflict-and-state-fragility-in-sub-saharan-africa-2/) - Sub-Saharan Africa was largely insulated from the initial stages of the financial crisis as the majority of the countries in the region are de-linked from the international financial markets. However, with the worsening of the global financial and economic crisis, the region as a whole has now been exposed to the downturn, and growth estimates
- [Assessing the evidence of the impact of governance on development outcomes and poverty reduction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/assessing-the-evidence-of-the-impact-of-governance-on-development-outcomes-and-poverty-reduction/) - This paper synthesises academic and donor research on the impact of governance work on poverty reduction and development outcomes. There is a large body of work on the critical importance of good governance in developing countries which argues that good governance has both intrinsic and instrumental developmental value. The introduction charts the historical emergence of
- [Key actors mapping: Somalia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/key-actors-mapping-somalia/) - This report provides an overview of power-holders in Somalia. It finds that power is heavily concentrated in individuals rather than formal institutions. Though Somalia now features a nascent central government as well as regional polities and one secessionist government, government institutions are not the sole or even primary locus of power. Most power continues to
- [Gender in fragile and conflict-affected situations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations/) - This rapid literature review, in annotated bibliography format, collates a large amount of literature published in 2013 and 2014 (up to April 2014) on the topic of gender in fragile and conflict-affected situations. It is not a systematic or exhaustive review, but does provide a comprehensive overview of the literature available. It includes all types
- [Political party development in Ukraine](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-party-development-in-ukraine/) - What has been the pattern of political party development in Ukraine over the last 10 years and how have these parties performed in recent elections. We need to understand better who the main political parties have been over recent years, how they have changed, amalgamated and disbanded; who their leadership has been; their sources of finance; their performance in elections; which of them have formed alliances across party lines; who their membership is and particularly where this is drawn from regionally/urban/rural etc. within the country.
- [Capacity building in the Ministry of Interior in fragile and post-conflict countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/capacity-building-in-the-ministry-of-interior-in-fragile-and-post-conflict-countries/) - Research and evidence on institutional capacity building in the Ministry of Interior in fragile and post-conflict countries
- [Political economy constraints for urban development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-constraints-for-urban-development/) - What are the principal political economy constraints to promoting more functional, inclusive and economically viable urban areas? What are the main gaps in evidence and knowledge on the extent of these constraints and how they should be best tackled?
- [Economic Growth and Statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-growth-and-statebuilding/) - Please identify literature on the linkages between on the one hand economic growth and employment generation, and on the other hand peace and statebuilding in conflict-affected and fragile states.
- [Grievance Redress Mechanisms in Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/grievance-redress-mechanisms-in-bangladesh/) - Identify literature on Grievance Redress Mechanisms (GRMs) used in Bangladesh. Where possible identify the models used, their approaches, the organisations involved and also their respective effectiveness.
- [Wellbeing through empowerment, improved enabling environment, and assets](https://gsdrc.org/publications/wellbeing-through-empowerment-improved-enabling-environment-and-assets/) - What is the evidence that increasing empowerment, improved enabling environment, and assets together lead to improved wellbeing?
- [Value for Money](https://gsdrc.org/publications/value-for-money/) - How are other donors approaching ‘value for money’ in their aid programming? Of particular interest are: (i.) how are other donors interpreting value for money; and (ii.) what tools they are using to assess value for money?
- [Community Participation in Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-participation-in-disaster-rehabilitation-and-recovery/) - Please identify literature on community participatory processes in disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts - including the involvement of vulnerable groups (women, elderly, children, disabled)
- [Participatory M&E and Beneficiary Feedback](https://gsdrc.org/publications/participatory-me-and-beneficiary-feedback/) - Please identify the existing literature on participatory monitoring and evaluation, with a particular emphasis on gaining wide-ranging beneficiary feedback. Comment on the coverage, scalability, risks, benefits and applicability.
- [Use of participatory methods in VAWG evaluations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/use-of-participatory-methods-in-vawg-evaluations/) - To what extent have participatory methods with beneficiaries been used to rigorously evaluate the impact of programmes designed to prevent or tackle violence against women and girls? Please provide specific examples.
- [Funding appeals for complex humanitarian emergencies](https://gsdrc.org/publications/funding-appeals-for-complex-humanitarian-emergencies/) - Based on a sample of high value protracted complex emergency humanitarian appeals and responses please provide information on: (i) the factors that contribute to the sums requested and the coverage of appeals; (ii) characteristics of how the appeal sums and their coverage changed over time as the crises evolved.
- [Intangible Heritage and Post-Disaster Protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/intangible-heritage-and-post-disaster-protection/) - Please identify literature on the social impact of disasters on intangible cultural heritage; and on international efforts to protect this heritage in disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction – including any available information on participatory processes.
- [Effectiveness of interventions in the humanitarian field to support community resilience](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-interventions-in-the-humanitarian-field-to-support-community-resilience/) - What is the existing literature on the effectiveness of various interventions in the humanitarian field that are meant to support community resilience? Provide an overview of findings and an annotated bibliography of selected references on the issue. Please pay particular attention to capacity building and collaborations. Selected references can focus on academic literature.
- [Impacts of urban crises in low-income versus middle-income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impacts-of-urban-crises-in-low-income-versus-middle-income-countries/) - Do conflicts and disasters affect urban areas differently in low income countries when compared with middle income countries?
- [Impact of extensive disasters](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-extensive-disasters/) - Please identify literature which captures the impact of extensive disasters on vulnerable communities (and if possible makes comparisons with the impact of intensive disasters). Please provide a summary of the literature and annotated bibliography.
- [Urban humanitarian crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urban-humanitarian-crises/) - Where and why are urban humanitarian crises happening? What analysis is available regarding future trends in relation to urban crises and how robust are these?
- [Drivers of Extremism](https://gsdrc.org/publications/drivers-of-extremism/) - Please identify literature on the drivers of radicalisation and extremism.
- [Under-development and Radicalisation in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/under-development-and-radicalisation-in-pakistan/) - What are the links between underdevelopment and radicalisation in Pakistan? Is there any evidence that investments in development and poverty reduction have had an impact on radicalisation?
- [Underdevelopment and Radicalisation in Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/underdevelopment-and-radicalisation-in-bangladesh/) - What are the links between underdevelopment and radicalisation in Bangladesh? Is there any evidence that investments in development and poverty reduction have had an impact on radicalisation?
- [Impact of Radicalisation/Violent Extremism on Poverty and Development Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-radicalisationviolent-extremism-on-poverty-and-development-outcomes/) - Please provide evidence on the impact of radicalisation/violent extremism on poverty, development outcomes, and the lives of poor people and identify any gaps in knowledge.
- [Conflict dynamics in West Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-dynamics-in-west-africa/) - Summarise current analyses of conflict dynamics in West Africa. Consider the drivers, actors and trends, as well as the data sources used/available to measure these conflict dynamics in the region.
- [Women and violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-and-violent-extremism/) - What role have women played in preventing, promoting and participating in violent extremist groups and violent extremist acts over last 15 years? What is the relationship between violent extremism and violence against women and girls?
- [Islamic radicalisation in North and West Africa: drivers and approaches to tackle radicalisation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/islamic-radicalisation-in-north-and-west-africa-drivers-and-approaches-to-tackle-radicalisation/) - This paper synthesises literature on Islamic radicalisation in North and West Africa, with a particular focus on the drivers of radicalisation and evidence on approaches that have attempted to tackle radicalisation. There is significant debate in the academic literature concerning the definition of ‘radicalisation’. For the purposes of this report, the definition of Islamic radicalisation
- [Conflict analysis of Morocco](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-morocco/) - Since the onset of the Arab Spring, Morocco has experienced protests about a diverse range of economic, political, and social issues. King Mohammed VI responded rapidly to the early protests, implementing a new constitution in 2011. However much of the literature suggests that, to date, these reforms have had a limited impact. Moreover, there have
- [Conflict analysis of Algeria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-algeria/) - Local and regional protests about a diverse range of socio-economic issues have been taking place in Algeria since 2011. However, much of the literature suggests that Algeria was not greatly affected by the protests emerging from the 'Arab Spring'. The Algerian government has succeeded in preventing protests from escalating to the levels witnessed in neighbouring
- [Strategic communications and foreign fighters](https://gsdrc.org/publications/strategic-communications-and-foreign-fighters/) - Identify examples of counter-radicalisation strategic communications projects in conflict-affected and nearby states aimed at preventing young people from becoming foreign fighters. Present the lessons learned emerging from these projects and evaluations of them.
- [Refugee, IDP and host community radicalisation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/refugee-idp-and-host-community-radicalisation/) - What makes people affected by armed conflict, in particular IDPs, refugees and their hosts, become radicalised? How does humanitarian aid contribute or not? With a particular reference to the Middle East.
- [Targeting groups at risk of extremism through security and justice programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/targeting-groups-at-risk-of-extremism-through-security-and-justice-programming/) - What evidence is there that security and justice programming (by DFID or other donors) targets specific groups (populations and victims) at risk of extremism and how has the impact been measured?
- [Youth, armed violence and job creation programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-armed-violence-and-job-creation-programmes/) - In response to growing evidence from the social science literature about the links between youth unemployment and armed conflict, donors have increasingly used youth job creation programmes as a tool with which to address armed violence. Many donors now identify addressing youth unemployment as an urgent priority, both in the field of peacebuilding and in
- [Access to Economic Opportunities and Changes in Power Relations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/access-to-economic-opportunities-and-changes-in-power-relations/) - Please identify examples of interventions aimed at increasing access to economic opportunities which have also resulted in changes in power relations.
- [Alternative livelihoods](https://gsdrc.org/publications/alternative-livelihoods/) - Please identify resources on the effectiveness of alternative livelihood support in contributing to stability.
- [Youth unemployment and livelihoods](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-unemployment-and-livelihoods/) - Please identify research on youth unemployment / lack of access to livelihoods in developing countries, in particular: (a) statistics on youth unemployment (including a comparison to unemployment for older people); and (b) information on why youth are finding it difficult to get jobs.
- [Conflict, Exclusion and Livelihoods in the Sinai Region of Egypt](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-exclusion-and-livelihoods-in-the-sinai-region-of-egypt/) - What does the literature say about patterns of conflict, exclusion and livelihoods in the Sinai region of Egypt? With particular reference to Bedouin livelihood strategies, government policies and other tensions emerging with other groups operating or migrating through the area.
- [Livelihoods in fragile contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/livelihoods-in-fragile-contexts/) - Please identify literature, including risks, lessons and best practices, for delivering livelihoods assistance, with a focus on food security, at the community-level in fragile and extremely volatile environments, where government capacity is limited or non-existent.
- [Urbanisation and Urban Poverty in Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urbanisation-and-urban-poverty-in-bangladesh/) - Please conduct a literature review on the key issues relating to urbanisation and urban poverty in Bangladesh. Please include books, journal articles, web-based resources and other grey literature since 2000. Please include literature where Bangladesh is the sole or significant part of the analysis.
- [Poverty and wellbeing indices](https://gsdrc.org/publications/poverty-and-wellbeing-indices/) - Please provide information on key global indices and frameworks 1. for monitoring multidimensional poverty and wellbeing and 2. that incorporate measures of subjective wellbeing, outlining their pros and cons and listing the key sources that discuss them.
- [Social Exclusion Approaches to Poverty Analysis](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-exclusion-approaches-to-poverty-analysis/) - Please review a selection of quantitative, qualitative and participatory tools and methods used by development agencies to undertake macro-level poverty and social exclusion analysis. Identify the scope and intended application of these tools, resources and skills required to use them, and any lessons learned.
- [Social exclusion in Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-exclusion-in-bangladesh/) - What are the key characteristics of social exclusion in Bangladesh?
- [Understanding Sectarianism in MENA countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/understanding-sectarianism-in-mena-countries/) - What are the understandings of sectarianism in MENA countries, including economic, social, and political aspects?
- [Social Exclusion Issues in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-exclusion-issues-in-afghanistan/) - What are the key issues relating to social exclusion in Afghanistan? Please include information on key trends and current issues; statistics; relevant government policies; and high profile messages and statements.
- [Economic Benefits of Disability-Inclusive Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-benefits-of-disability-inclusive-development/) - What are the economic benefits of including people with disabilities in development processes, and in particular, of multilateral and donor agencies taking a disability-inclusive development approach?
- [Disability inclusion in social protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/disability-inclusion-in-social-protection/) - Identify any examples of integration of disability issues within cash transfer and broader social protection programmes, strategies and policies, in low-income contexts.
- [Community-driven development and indigenous, ethnic minority, and disability issues](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-driven-development-and-indigenous-ethnic-minority-and-disability-issues/) - Which, if any, community driven development (CDD) programmes explicitly discuss or deal with indigenous or ethnic minority issues? Which, if any, CDD programmes explicitly discuss or deal with disability issues?
- [Social protection programmes for people with disabilities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-protection-programmes-for-people-with-disabilities/) - Please identify a selection of examples where countries have implemented pensions and other forms of social protection for people with disability in the context of constraints such as low administrative capacity, poor infrastructure and remoteness. Provide information, where possible, on the basic design (e.g. transfer size, coverage), and the way in which disability is defined and assessed for the purposes of eligibility.
- [Youth Issues in Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-issues-in-yemen/) - What are the key issues facing the youth of Yemen? How have these issues impacted other countries and how have national governments and donors responded to them, in policy and practical terms? Examples from countries in the MENA region would be particularly valuable.
- [Child-centred Research and Advocacy](https://gsdrc.org/publications/child-centred-research-and-advocacy/) - Please provide examples of when child-centred research and advocacy have been used in a development context. We are particularly interested in participatory video.
- [Youth and Governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-and-governance/) - What are the key governance issues in relation to the role of youth and how are these shifting? Are there acknowledged good practices in relation to programming in this area?
- [Evidence about the effectiveness of child protection programmes in developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-about-the-effectiveness-of-child-protection-programmes-in-developing-countries/) - Identify and summarise evidence about the effectiveness of child protection programmes in developing countries. Please highlight information on cost effectiveness, on effectiveness (cost or otherwise) of case management or of better integration of services for vulnerable children more generally.
- [Child-friendly spaces for adolescent girls in emergency settings](https://gsdrc.org/publications/child-friendly-spaces-for-adolescent-girls-in-emergency-settings/) - What is the evidence that child-friendly spaces in emergency settings address the specific needs of adolescent girls (particularly with regards to preventing violence)?
- [Governance in Tribal Environments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/governance-in-tribal-environments/) - Please conduct a review of the literature on examples of alternative localised governance systems in relatively tribal environments that have delivered effective, consent-based rule of law.
- [Community-based social protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-based-social-protection/) - What generalised observations are possible to make about community-based social protection mechanisms' effectiveness across different contexts? How do formal social protection programmes build upon these mechanisms to improve social outcomes and what impact do formal mechanisms have on CBSP?
- [Women’s and girls’ benefits from market-oriented agriculture in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-and-girls-benefits-from-market-oriented-agriculture-in-uganda/) - What approaches have been successful in ensuring that women and girls benefit from market-oriented agriculture and agribusiness projects?
- [Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) and Aid](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-lgbt-and-aid/) - What strategies have been tried by development agencies (government and NGO) to secure and protect the rights of LGBT people, particularly in Africa? What has been their impact? What lessons have been learned? Please summarise findings from recent research in this area.
- [Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex rights in national human rights institutions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lesbian-gay-bisexual-transgender-and-intersex-rights-in-national-human-rights-institutions/) - Please identify a selection of national human rights institutions, including human rights commissions and ombudspersons, that have addressed LGBTI rights, and the strategies they have used.
- [Gender Issues in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-issues-in-afghanistan/) - What are the key issues relating to gender in Afghanistan? Please include information on key trends and current issues; statistics; relevant government policies; and high profile messages and statements.
- [Donor Activities Supporting Women in Elected Political Spaces](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-activities-supporting-women-in-elected-political-spaces/) - Please provide an overview and case studies of the principal approaches, instruments and budgetary spend that donors (particularly bilateral donors) are using to support women's participation in elected political spaces (national and local level), results achieved, and lessons learnt about donor support. (This should include examples of where donors are supporting women’s engagement in parliaments/parliamentary committees, political parties; women’s campaigns and other relevant civil society support; legislative or electoral reforms that promote women’s participation; voter education for women, etc).
- [Women’s Participation in Elections in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-participation-in-elections-in-afghanistan/) - Please synthesise materials and reports relating to women’s political participation in Afghanistan during elections to cover materials not consulted (because not available) in the previous GSDRC report.
- [Women and Girls in the MENA Region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-and-girls-in-the-mena-region/) - What is the political and economic situation for women and girls in the MENA region and how has it changed as a result of the Arab Spring? What is the contribution of women to the political uprising in MENA?
- [Effects of political quotas for women](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effects-of-political-quotas-for-women/) - What impact do quotas for seats allocated to women in local and national representative government bodies have on social and political processes and outcomes?
- [Evaluations of interventions impacting women’s political participation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evaluations-of-interventions-impacting-womens-political-participation/) - Please provide a sense of the size and quality of the evaluation literature on interventions which impact on the political participation of women. Please also provide links to as many evaluations as possible, including but not limited to RCTs.
- [Women’s networks in MENA](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-networks-in-mena/) - Map and analyse the international/cross-country women’s networks across the Middle East and North Africa.
- [Women in Business in the Pacific Islands](https://gsdrc.org/publications/women-in-business-in-the-pacific-islands/) - Please identify literature on the key issues relating to women in business in the Pacific Islands – namely Tonga, Samoa, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Please include information on key trends and current issues; statistics; relevant government policies; laws and regulations; and high profile messages and statements.
- [Promoting the Economic Participation of Women](https://gsdrc.org/publications/promoting-the-economic-participation-of-women/) - Please provide a summary of successful interventions for promoting women’s economic participation.
- [Women’s control of productive natural resources](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-control-of-productive-natural-resources/) - Identify a selection of key recent (2005-2011) studies looking at women’s access to and control of productive natural resources other than land, in particular water and forests
- [Girls' access to economic assets](https://gsdrc.org/publications/girls-access-to-economic-assets/) - Please identify a selection of evaluations that have been done to assess the impact of programmes to increase girls’ access to and use of economic assets (quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods evaluations). Highlight the evaluation questions posed, evaluation methods and key findings.
- [Women’s economic role in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-economic-role-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa-mena/) - 1) Outline the key factors that constrain or promote women's economic participation in MENA, such as access to finance, the care economy, working practices, social protection, and legal frameworks. Are legal frameworks (related to inheritance laws, property rights, divorce rights, citizenship and mobility) implemented in practice? (Include evidence from Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, Morocco, the Occupied Palestinian Territories, Yemen and Lebanon.) Please include a short intro on what we know about women's economic role, including number of women in employment, role of women in the informal sector, types of work, sectors of the economy, etc; 2) What evidence of impact is available for initiatives to strengthen women's economic participation in MENA? Please reference women's networks, microfinance, women's ministries, women's leadership programmes, social protection, changes to legal frameworks, etc. How has development assistance contributed? If so, how?
- [Impact of gender-responsive budgeting](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-gender-responsive-budgeting/) - What is the evidence on the impact of gender-responsive budgeting on gender outcomes and on resource distribution within government bodies, in developing countries? Where possible, identify the key requirements for success and lessons learned in gender-responsive budgeting.
- [Gender Issues in Afghanistan - Violence against Women and Voice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-issues-in-afghanistan-violence-against-women-and-voice/) - Please identify literature with examples and lessons on ending gender-based violence and empowering women's voices (and related rule of law interventions) in Afghanistan -- including any available information on Sharia law and moderate perspectives of women's roles in Afghanistan.
- [Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and gender indicators](https://gsdrc.org/publications/female-genital-mutilationcutting-and-gender-indicators/) - What are the linkages between the practice of FGM/C and a) early marriage; and the four areas of DFID's gender vision, ie b) delaying first pregnancy, c) getting girls through secondary school, d) preventing violence against girls and women and e) getting economic assets to girls?
- [Impact evaluations of programmes to prevent and respond to violence against women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-evaluations-of-programmes-to-prevent-and-respond-to-violence-against-women-and-girls/) - In spite of the growing body of literature documenting the prevalence of violence against women and girls, there remains a paucity of evaluations of the impact of interventions in this area. The majority of evaluations of programmes to prevent and respond to such violence take the form of qualitative, input or process-level assessments, as opposed
- [Monetary values of the private psychological costs of VAWG](https://gsdrc.org/publications/monetary-values-of-the-private-psychological-costs-of-vawg/) - What monetary values have been placed on the private psychological costs of violence against women and girls, such as fear, depression, disempowerment and low self-esteem?
- [Risks, effects and prevalence of VAWG](https://gsdrc.org/publications/risks-effects-and-prevalence-of-vawg/) - Please identify and reference key facts on the risks, effects and prevalence of violence against women and girls globally. Within this, please outline the methods and any limitations of data collection and any related data sets
- [Economic Empowerment and Violence against Women and Girls (VAWG)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-empowerment-and-violence-against-women-and-girls-vawg/) - What evidence is there that the economic empowerment of women and girls can: (a) be an effective method of prevention or reduction in violence against women and girls; and (b) put girls and women at greater risk of harm?
- [Violence against women and girls in Timor-Leste](https://gsdrc.org/publications/violence-against-women-and-girls-in-timor-leste/) - Please provide a review of the literature that looks at violence against women and girls (VAWG) in Timor-Leste. Specifically, please note: information on the prevalence of VAWG; causes; relevant legislation and national policy frameworks; past or current government, development partner or civil society initiatives; success or failure of interventions; links with HIV/AIDS; and gaps in the literature.
- [Evaluation of programmes related to violence against women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evaluation-of-programmes-related-to-violence-against-women-and-girls/) - Which are the key organisations and who are the key individuals involved in conducting evaluations of programmes related to violence against women and girls? Please focus on specific evaluations rather than broader social science research. For organisations, please include, if possible, titles of evaluations conducted, links to the evaluation reports and key evaluation designs, approaches and methods used; for individuals, please include affiliation and key area of expertise.
- [Violence against women and girls in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/violence-against-women-and-girls-in-afghanistan/) - What is the evidence of the prevalence, trends and drivers of violence against women and girls in Afghanistan? Since 2005, what programmes to tackle violence against women and girls have been implemented by different actors (state, civil society, multilateral institutions)? What have been their successes and unintended consequences to date?
- [Gender dimensions of conflict drivers and stabilisation in eastern DRC](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-dimensions-of-conflict-drivers-and-stabilisation-in-eastern-drc/) - What are the gender dimensions of conflict drivers and of stabilisation in the eastern DRC (Democratic Republic of Congo)? Include a very brief description of the state of research and evidence on these topics.
- [Links between gender-based violence and outbreaks of violent conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/links-between-gender-based-violence-and-outbreaks-of-violent-conflict/) - What evidence exists for links between gender-based violence and outbreaks of violent conflict?
- [Donor Approaches to Extractive Industries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-approaches-to-extractive-industries/) - Collect information and provide some analysis of current donor approaches to extractives (oil, gas and mining) management, particularly for improved development outcomes. Please highlight governance aspects where relevant.
- [Natural Resource Revenue for Service Delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/natural-resource-revenue-for-service-delivery/) - What is the experience of developing countries in translating major expansions in natural resource-related revenues into improved service delivery? What is the experience of countries with low levels of government effectiveness and poor control of corruption? Which countries are the success stories and what can we learn from their experience? Have development partners been able to support countries to manage the transition associated with a major expansion in resource extraction activity?
- [Resource Management and Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/resource-management-and-conflict/) - What does the available literature say about the links between the management of mineral resources and conflict?
- [Impact of ‘Resource Curse’ Mitigation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-resource-curse-mitigation/) - What evidence is there about the impact of initiatives to mitigate the ‘resource curse’?
- [Overview of key governance issues related to natural resource management](https://gsdrc.org/publications/overview-of-key-governance-issues-related-to-natural-resource-management/) - Please provide an overview of the key governance issues related to natural resource management (including non-renewable resources)
- [Natural resource exploitation and peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/publications/natural-resource-exploitation-and-peacebuilding/) - Please provide analysis and concrete examples of how and where natural resource exploitation can/has contributed to peacebuilding.
- [Stakeholder effectiveness in natural resource management](https://gsdrc.org/publications/stakeholder-effectiveness-in-natural-resource-management/) - Identify literature on the effectiveness of stakeholders in managing natural resources so as to achieve development outcomes. Where possible, identify which stakeholders are most important, what their incentives are, what conditions enable their efforts, and the importance of capability, accountability and responsiveness.
- [Political economy of energy in southern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-energy-in-southern-africa/) - What is the available evidence on the political economy of power in Southern Africa? If possible, identify literature on: the political economy of power trading between Southern African countries; regional institutions to facilitate power trading (e.g. Southern Africa Power Pool); and constraints to attracting private finance into regional power infrastructure.
- [Inclusive Growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/inclusive-growth/) - What is the latest thinking on inclusive growth? In particular on: 1) the barriers to poor people's participation in growth, and 2) the policy responses required to promote more inclusive growth.
- [Mapping Research on Inclusive Growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-research-on-inclusive-growth/) - Which researchers/ organisations are leading the latest thinking on inclusive growth?
- [IFIs, economic reform and inclusive growth in Egypt](https://gsdrc.org/publications/ifis-economic-reform-and-inclusive-growth-in-egypt/) - Why did post 2004 IFI-supported economic reform programmes in Egypt fail to deliver inclusive growth?
- [Effectiveness of demand-led technical assistance and cooperation on public sector reforms](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-demand-led-technical-assistance-and-cooperation-on-public-sector-reforms/) - Identify evidence that demonstrates that the provision of demand-led technical assistance and cooperation helps support governments to undertake public sector reforms. Where possible, include evidence relating to supporting public sector reforms for improving economic governance and inclusive growth, and evidence applicable to supporting MENA governments' public sector reforms in response to the changing political dynamics.
- [Economic Development and Peace in the Middle East](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-development-and-peace-in-the-middle-east/) - What are the links between economic development (in particular, employment generation) and peace in the Middle East?
- [Literature on Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/literature-on-yemen/) - Please identify literature on the economy, and the security, human rights and political situation in Yemen.
- [Organised Crime and Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/organised-crime-and-development/) - Please identify recent literature on the impact of organised crime on development and governance - including, if available, any information on global trends in organised crime and the economic impact of organised crime.
- [Long-term Economic Planning](https://gsdrc.org/publications/long-term-economic-planning/) - What formal and informal processes have been used for long-term national economic planning? Is there any evidence that long-term economic planning contributes to higher growth?
- [Lessons Learned on Cooperatives](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-learned-on-cooperatives/) - What are the lessons learned and existing global good practices on the role of cooperatives in increasing access for the poorest to markets?
- [The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Conflict and Social Stability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-the-global-financial-crisis-on-conflict-and-social-stability/) - Identify emerging analysis on the potential of the current global financial crisis to affect social stability, cohesion and exacerbate conflict and fragility, including lessons learned from previous regional and global economic crises.
- [Indonesian Financial Crisis (1997-1998)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/indonesian-financial-crisis-1997-1998/) - Please identify literature on the social impacts of the financial crisis in Indonesia (1997-1998) with particular attention to the causes of social unrest (including unemployment). Please include information on the policy responses implemented.
- [Argentine Financial Crisis (2001-2002)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/argentine-financial-crisis-2001-2002/) - Please identify literature on the social impacts of the financial crisis in Argentina (2001-2002) with particular attention to the causes of social unrest (including unemployment). Please include information on the policy responses implemented.
- [Economic Crisis and Sub-Saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-crisis-and-sub-saharan-africa/) - Please identify literature on the impact of the global economic crisis on Sub-Saharan Africa. Please aim to highlight from within the available literature any information on most affected countries/regions; humanitarian and development concerns; and implications for social and political stability.
- [French Financial Crisis (2008-2009)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/french-financial-crisis-2008-2009/) - Please identify literature about the social impacts of the financial crisis in France in 2008-09 with particular attention to the causes of social unrest (including unemployment) and including information about the policy responses implemented.
- [The Humanitarian Impact of the Global Economic Crisis on the Asia Pacific Region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-humanitarian-impact-of-the-global-economic-crisis-on-the-asia-pacific-region/) - Please identify literature on the humanitarian impact of the global economic crisis on the Asia/Pacific region. Please aim to highlight from within the available literature any information on most affected countries/regions; prevalent humanitarian impacts; and implications for humanitarian programming in affected or vulnerable locations.
- [Gender and Growth in China](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-and-growth-in-china/) - Please provide literature on possible links between China’s growth and gender equality. Please also include wider literature examining the links between economic growth and gender equality.
- [Costs of Urbanisation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/costs-of-urbanisation/) - Please identify literature on the economic costs associated with rapid urbanisation (with a focus on developing countries, in particular South Asia and the rest of Asia). Costs of particular interest are loss of productivity; environmental costs; and security-related costs.
- [Community-based Approaches and the Extractives Sector in Situations of Fragility and Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-based-approaches-and-the-extractives-sector-in-situations-of-fragility-and-conflict/) - Please provide a summary of literature on community based approaches and the extractives sector in situations of state fragility and conflict, including the use of the Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) model.
- [The World Bank in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-world-bank-in-fragile-states/) - What knowledge/analysis exists on the performance of the World Bank in fragile and conflict-affected states, with a particular eye to World Bank-UN coordination?
- [Measuring Women’s Economic Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/measuring-womens-economic-empowerment/) - What literature exists on impact evaluation in relation to women's economic empowerment in developing countries and what does it tell us about theories of change, indicators and impact measures?What impact evaluations have been done on women's economic empowerment programmes and what results do they show? What indicators have been used to measure success / progress, and if available, what Theory of Change / Intervention Logic has been used to design the interventions?
- [Improving the Investment Climate in Fragile and Conflict Affected States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/improving-the-investment-climate-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Which interventions have been most successful in improving the investment climate in fragile and conflcit affected states (FCAS)? Provide examples of good and bad donor practice in supporting these interventions. Provide a particular focus on Special Economic Zones.
- [Investment Climate Constraints in Fragile and Conflict Affected States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/investment-climate-constraints-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - What have been the main factors that have prevented the development of a strong investment climate in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States (FCAS)? Please focus on uncovering evidence to demonstrate the significance of these factors.
- [Private Investment Constraints in the Poorest Countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/private-investment-constraints-in-the-poorest-countries/) - Review literature on evidence of what constrains private investment in business in the poorest countries. In particular identify whether businesses are prevented from being commercially viable by lack of access to capital.
- [Evidence for the Supporting Investment Climate in FCASs](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-for-the-supporting-investment-climate-in-fcass/) - Provide evidence for the need to improve the investment climate in FCASs. Provide evidence on whether improvements in the investment climate lead to increased economic growth and provide three short case studies, detailing interventions to improve the investment climate with the aim of drawing generic lessons that might apply to other countries.
- [Mapping key authorities on women and work in low income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-key-authorities-on-women-and-work-in-low-income-countries/) - Which academics are key authorities in research on women and work (paid and unpaid) in low income countries, and what are the themes of their research?
- [Evaluations of programmes on women and work in low income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evaluations-of-programmes-on-women-and-work-in-low-income-countries/) - What have been the findings of rigorous evaluations (if they exist) of programmes aimed at creating jobs for women in low income countries, improving their working conditions, and addressing unpaid work?
- [The impact of decentralisation on economic growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-decentralisation-on-economic-growth/) - What has the impact of democratic decentralisation been on economic development and economic growth? Please provide examples and lessons from various countries.
- [Trust Funds and the Private Sector](https://gsdrc.org/publications/trust-funds-and-the-private-sector/) - Provide examples where private sector actors have either managed MDTFs in post-conflict contexts or where the private sector has been supported to assist recovery through MDTFs. What evidence is there for the effectiveness of these arrangements? If possible, identify examples where MDTFs have been used to raise funds from the private sector or from foundations.
- [Microcredit for the ultra-poor](https://gsdrc.org/publications/microcredit-for-the-ultra-poor/) - Synthesise evidence on microcredit for the ultra-poor, and in particular, if there is anything on programmes that operate in this way through an apex fund route (rather than being funded directly).
- [Incentives to the Private Sector and Early Recovery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/incentives-to-the-private-sector-and-early-recovery/) - Provide examples where donors have tried to influence the incentives facing the private sector to support early recovery. Focus particularly on direct interventions to support businesses, rather than support to the investment climate. How successful have these efforts been? Are there any general lessons about the kinds of incentives that work in particular contexts?
- [Urbanisation and Growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urbanisation-and-growth/) - Provide a summary of research on the links between urban centres, urbanisation and economic growth. Focus particularly on key research gaps, questions unanswered or inconclusive evidence and include the effects of urban demographics.
- [Employment Intensity of Growth in Agriculture](https://gsdrc.org/publications/employment-intensity-of-growth-in-agriculture/) - What is the key evidence on the employment intensity of growth of the agricultural, and particularly the agribusiness, sectors in middle-, low-income and fragile and conflict affected states. How does this vary by gender?
- [Indicators for investment and business climate](https://gsdrc.org/publications/indicators-for-investment-and-business-climate/) - Identify and summarise indicators used to indicate improvements in overall business environment, e.g. improvement in property rights, rule of law etc. Where possible, identify strengths and weaknesses, and the indicators most suitable for measuring improvements in fragile states.
- [Distortionary economic impacts of aid interventions in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/distortionary-economic-impacts-of-aid-interventions-in-fragile-states/) - Please identify findings and policy recommendations on the economic impact of humanitarian and development interventions in conflict and post-conflict environments. Where possible, focus on the impacts on factor prices, wages, commodity prices, flows of factors of production (such as human capital), and identify the key distortions that aid flows can cause by crowding out.
- [Legal and technical support programmes for negotiations on extractives or land deals](https://gsdrc.org/publications/legal-and-technical-support-programmes-for-negotiations-on-extractives-or-land-deals/) - Please identify a selection of legal and technical support programmes designed to help governments and communities in sub-Saharan Africa engage with extractive and other companies in order to get good extractive/ land deals. Identify the type of support provided and how/ on what scale providers function.
- [Evidence for the Development Impact of Inclusive Service Delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-for-the-development-impact-of-inclusive-service-delivery/) - What is the evidence (with examples) to show that making service delivery more inclusive (i.e. by extending services to under-served groups) brings development returns? Focus on outcomes relating to the millennium development goals and growth and focus on the education, health and WASH sectors. Please comment on the robustness/scope of the evidence.
- [Impact of microcredit interest rates on the poor](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-microcredit-interest-rates-on-the-poor/) - Please synthesise evidence of the impact of microcredit interest rates on the poor. Is it desirable to place a cap on the interest rates charged by microfinance institutions (MFIs)?
- [The influence of international commercial and investment law and procedure on foreign investment and economic development/ growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-influence-of-international-commercial-and-investment-law-and-procedure-on-foreign-investment-and-economic-development-growth/) - Summarise the evidence on the influence of international commercial and investment law and procedure (with a particular focus on dispute resolution) on foreign investment and economic development/ growth.
- [Political economy analysis for economic and private sector reforms](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-analysis-for-economic-and-private-sector-reforms/) - Identify examples of political economy analysis (PEA) being used to support economic/private sector (EPS) policy or institutional reforms. If possible, identify how widely used PEA is within development actor economic programming and which PEA tools seem most appropriate in the sector.
- [Promoting social development and human rights in private sector engagement](https://gsdrc.org/publications/promoting-social-development-and-human-rights-in-private-sector-engagement/) - Identify how donor agencies promote private sector engagement in ways which are informed by principles of social development in general and human rights in particular (with reference to key policies, prevailing practices and notable case studies)
- [Women’s access to finance in Mozambique](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-access-to-finance-in-mozambique/) - Please provide a literature review on issues relating to women’s access to finance in Mozambique, including the barriers and current situation in terms of access and use.
- [Literature review  poverty, social analysis and the political economy of Tonga](https://gsdrc.org/publications/literature-review-poverty-social-analysis-and-the-political-economy-of-tonga/) - Undertake a review of recent literature on poverty, social analysis and the political economy of Tonga. This literature review would consist of a synthesis of findings under each topic, summarising research results and, where appropriate, providing brief synopses of reports directly relevant to these topics. GSDRC is also asked to identify academic institutions or individuals who are undertaking research on Tongan issues on a regular/ongoing basis. Include research from 2010 onwards.
- [Peacebuilding and economic growth](https://gsdrc.org/publications/peacebuilding-and-economic-growth/) - Please identify how peacebuilding relates to economic recovery and growth in fragile and conflict affected states. We are also interested in what approaches to peacebuilding have been used to promote economic recovery and growth in the Asia-Pacific region, and how economic growth has impacted peace and stability in the region.
- [The shadow economy in conflict-affected countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-shadow-economy-in-conflict-affected-countries/) - What approaches can be used to (i) Leverage the positive social function that shadow economies provide to conflict-affected populations and (ii) Incentivise war profiteers to join the legal economy in post conflict environments?
- [Benefits of urbanisation in Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/benefits-of-urbanisation-in-asia/) - What benefits does urbanisation bring for poverty reduction in Asia? Identify lessons learned and potential roles for donors.
- [Alternative dispute resolution for businesses in developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/alternative-dispute-resolution-for-businesses-in-developing-countries/) - Identify mechanisms (particularly innovative ones) for helping businesses to effectively resolve commercial disputes in developing countries.
- [Economic growth and fragility](https://gsdrc.org/publications/economic-growth-and-fragility/) - Identify evidence on the role of economic growth and/or economic development in helping countries break out of fragility (not conflict).
- [Multi-donor Funding for Elections in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/multi-donor-funding-for-elections-in-fragile-states/) - Please provide examples of good practice in multi-donor funding for elections in post-conflict or fragile states (e.g. pooled or basket funding arrangements). What areas of activity have these funds supported? How were they governed and co-ordinated?
- [Cross-party Caucuses](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cross-party-caucuses/) - What is the international experience in cross-party caucuses in Parliament, especially those of marginalised communities? How do cross-party parliamentary forums/caucuses work in other countries and what lessons do they have to offer?
- [Mechanisms for Increasing Voice and Accountability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mechanisms-for-increasing-voice-and-accountability/) - Please identify evaluations of instruments and mechanisms for increasing voice and accountability/ citizen engagement (e.g. citizen's scorecards, public audits, incentive-based payments, community engagement in management committees, budget monitoring, participatory planning, gender budgeting and social auditing). Please highlight what works well, and what kinds of changes are produced by successful programmes.
- [New ICTs for Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/new-icts-for-development/) - Please provide a comprehensive list of new information and communications technologies being used to enhance development outcomes in developing countries, a brief description of each and some key illustrative examples of each tool (where possible providing a brief description of the results achieved with numbers and how the tool works in practice.
- [Communication initiatives to change attitudes/behaviours](https://gsdrc.org/publications/communication-initiatives-to-change-attitudesbehaviours/) - Please identify literature on communications interventions in developing countries designed to change attitudes and behaviours, particularly around gender relations and the value and role of women and adolescent girls. Is there any evidence of impact and lessons learned?
- [Impact of Communication for Development (C4D)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-communication-for-development-c4d/) - How does Communication for Development (C4D) make development more effective? Give practical, tangible examples of where C4D activities have improved development outcomes or helped achieve development goals. If possible, include examples which demonstrate that without C4D those goals would not have been reached.
- [Social Media and Reform Networks, Protest and Social Movements](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-media-and-reform-networks-protest-and-social-movements/) - Please provide a survey of the literature on the relationship, or use of, social media in the formation, functioning and successes of reform networks, protests, social movements and coalitions.
- [Mobile telephony innovation to improve education service outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mobile-telephony-innovation-to-improve-education-service-outcomes/) - Identify recent innovations in the use of mobile telephony to improve education service outcomes and data management. Where possible focus on application in post-conflict environments and identify emerging best practices.
- [Impact of telecommunications reform on service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-telecommunications-reform-on-service-delivery/) - Please identify, review and synthesise literature on international experience in telecommunications reform contributing to service delivery and the potential add on benefits for service delivery in fragile and weak states. Areas of interest are: what is available, extent of adoption, practical challenges for implementation, and evidence of sustainable improvements in service delivery.
- [Methodologies for measuring influence](https://gsdrc.org/publications/methodologies-for-measuring-influence/) - Review evaluations of measuring influence focusing on advocacy, lobbying, negotiation and knowledge uptake. What are the methodologies used in these evaluations and what are their strengths and weaknesses?
- [Sending messages to reduce violent conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/sending-messages-to-reduce-violent-conflict/) - Identify literature on interventions that send messages, such as through advertising, to change attitudes, norms and behaviour about violent conflict. Where possible identify whether these interventions have been effective and what have been the conceptual models behind them.
- [Interventions to counter hate speech](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-to-counter-hate-speech/) - What evidence is there that programming interventions on countering hate speech have been effective, and what examples are there of proven successful interventions?
- [Social media and conflict management in post-conflict and fragile contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-media-and-conflict-management-in-post-conflict-and-fragile-contexts/) - What is the recent evidence of the role of social media in post-conflict and fragile contexts with regards to conflict management?
- [Donor Support to Non-state Providers of Security and Justice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-support-to-non-state-providers-of-security-and-justice/) - Please identify literature on donor support to non-state providers of security and justice services in fragile and conflict-affected states, and highlight any lessons learned. In particular, any lessons related to the conditions appropriate or not suited to supporting non-state actors, how to ensure services are equitable, affordable and accessible, and how performance can be assessed.
- [Decentralisation and Statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/publications/decentralisation-and-statebuilding/) - To what extent has building or restoring sub-national administrative and fiscal structures been successful (or otherwise) at strengthening the state-citizen relationship and contributing to state legitimacy? To what extent do the nature of the political settlement and/or the political economy of the country affect these outcomes? Any examples of donor engagement/impact in this area would be welcome.
- [Governance Reform and Service Delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/governance-reform-and-service-delivery/) - Please identify lessons learned and best practices in governance reform and service delivery in environments similar to that of Sierra Leone
- [Youth statebuilding and peacebuilding interventions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/youth-statebuilding-and-peacebuilding-interventions/) - Please provide a brief survey of literature on statebuilding and peacebuilding interventions that address youth challenges, highlighting lessons learned and best practices.
- [Impact of electoral measures on elections and a country's development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-electoral-measures-on-elections-and-a-countrys-development/) - Identify and summarise the evidence on the impact of a) credible electoral rolls, b) domestic observation and c) impartial election adjudication, on elections and a country's development.
- [UN Peace Support Mission Transitions - Sierra Leone](https://gsdrc.org/publications/un-peace-support-mission-transitions-sierra-leone/) - What analysis exists of the transition from the UNAMSIL peacekeeping operation to United Nations Integrated Office for Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) in 2005/6 and the Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Sierra Leone (UNIPSIL) in 2008?
- [UN Peace Support Mission Transitions - Haiti](https://gsdrc.org/publications/un-peace-support-mission-transitions-haiti/) - What analysis exists on transition from UNMIH to MINUSTAH, including through the intermediate UN missions UNSMIH and UNTMIH?
- [UN Peace Support Mission Transitions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/un-peace-support-mission-transitions/) - What analysis exists on UN peace support mission transitions generally, including from Peacekeeping Mission to Peacebuilding Mission and from UN Mission to UN Country Team?
- [Conflict and Stabilisation in Mali and the Sahel Region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-and-stabilisation-in-mali-and-the-sahel-region/) - Identify relevant literature for policy makers and practitioners on conflict and stabilisation in Mali and the Sahel region. Where possible identify studies which relate to insurgencies in Mali and the Sahel region. Summarise lessons learned and practical recommendations for action.
- [Interventions to increase levels of trust in society](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-to-increase-levels-of-trust-in-society/) - Identify interventions that have attempted to increase levels of trust in society. Look at what the interventions have tried to do and if they were effective. The focus is on ‘trust’ from the perspective of accountable relationships with government (e.g. over taxes) and general economic relationships. The aim is to look at the social side of state accountability and anti-corruption.
- [Stability and stabilisation approaches in multinational interventions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/stability-and-stabilisation-approaches-in-multinational-interventions/) - How many multinational interventions are mandated to pursue an agenda for stability (local, regional or global), and how many are authorised to use ‘stabilisation’ approaches?
- [Promoting national identities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/promoting-national-identities/) - Identify approaches that attempt to understand and promote the generation of national identities. What constitutes them? How are they made? What incentives (or other tools) could be used to promote an overarching Somali political entity?
- [Recent literature on instability and intrastate conflict in Zimbabwe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/recent-literature-on-instability-and-intrastate-conflict-in-zimbabwe/) - What recent literature (reports, assessments, and analysis published within the last two years) exists which assesses and analyses instability and intrastate conflict in Zimbabwe?
- [The role of security organisations in security sector reform](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-role-of-security-organisations-in-security-sector-reform/) - What are the themes of current literature on Security System (or Sector) Reform? What are the major areas of contention and debate, and of significant consensus, particularly with relevance to military or other state security organisations (within the donor country and locally)?
- [Donor policy approaches to security and justice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-policy-approaches-to-security-and-justice/) - What are the different donor policy approaches to security and justice? (Refer to the differences and similarities with DFID’s approach).
- [Policy approaches and lessons from working with non-state actors in security and justice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/policy-approaches-and-lessons-from-working-with-non-state-actors-in-security-and-justice/) - What are the different donor policy approaches to working with non-state actors in security and justice? (Refer to the differences and similarities with DFID’s approach). What lessons emerge from other donors’ work?
- [Multi-agency stabilisation operations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/multi-agency-stabilisation-operations/) - Identify literature on best practice and lessons learned in multi-agency stabilisation operations. What evidence is available on whether civilian or military leadership produce better outcomes in different contexts?
- [Citizens' role in political settlements](https://gsdrc.org/publications/citizens-role-in-political-settlements/) - Identify literature on the role of citizens in creating and maintaining political settlements. Where possible identify material that discusses the role citizens are allowed to play; how citizens view their roles; compromises citizens are prepared to make; and differences, if any, between their roles in national and subnational political settlements.
- [Quotas for Women’s Representation in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/quotas-for-womens-representation-in-africa/) - What are the key success factors in moving towards quota systems for women’s participation in political decision-making in Africa? What forms have "Women's Parliaments" taken? What has been the experience with them in Africa and, in particular, what has been their role in moving toward such quota systems?
- [Electoral Assistance Lessons](https://gsdrc.org/publications/electoral-assistance-lessons/) - What are the trends, lessons learned and best practices on elections and international electoral assistance over the last 5-10 years?
- [Violence against Women (VAW) and political engagement](https://gsdrc.org/publications/violence-against-women-vaw-and-political-engagement/) - Please provide an annotated bibliography about approaches, outcomes and impacts of initiatives that aim to reduce violence against women and are linked to increased political engagement.
- [Participation in transparency and accountability initiatives](https://gsdrc.org/publications/participation-in-transparency-and-accountability-initiatives/) - – the case of budgetary processes and extractive industries: Please highlight any evidence/lessons learned concerning participation in transparency and accountability initiatives, focusing on budget processes and extractive industries (e.g. whether participation contributed to effectiveness or whether a lack of participation was a constraint).
- [Community activism in Jordan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-activism-in-jordan/) - Identify a selection of current examples of community activism in Jordan. What trends in community organising and participation have been noted by observers, particularly since the Arab Spring?
- [Democracy strengthening in Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/democracy-strengthening-in-sudan/) - Can you identify and summarise the key findings of evaluations and research conducted in the past 10 years on democracy strengthening in Sudan?
- [Elected women’s effectiveness at representing women’s interests](https://gsdrc.org/publications/elected-womens-effectiveness-at-representing-womens-interests/) - What is the evidence on effectiveness of women elected in Africa in representing women’s interests once in power? What lessons are there on what can make them more responsive to their constituency/women in particular?
- [RCTs for Empowerment and Accountability Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rcts-for-empowerment-and-accountability-programmes/) - To what extent have randomised control trials been used to successfully measure the results of empowerment and accountability processes or programmes?
- [Interventions for collective action and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-for-collective-action-and-accountability/) - Identify examples of interventions that have addressed collective action failures and increased accountability.
- [Budget accountability and participation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/budget-accountability-and-participation/) - Is there evidence that a) transparent budgets / budget processes, b) CSOs engaged in budget accountability activities, c) International policy community actively promoting Budget Transparency, Accountability and Participation (BTAP), lead to improved budget accountability and participation? Is there evidence that improved government budget accountability and participation leads to more efficient, effective, equitable budgets?
- [Transparency and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transparency-and-accountability/) - Q1: How, where, and under what circumstances is there a link between more and better data and improved transparency? Q2: How, where, and under what circumstances does transparency lead to accountability?
- [Electoral accountability in Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/electoral-accountability-in-indonesia/) - What are the constraints to electoral mechanisms of accountability? What evidence is available that certain interventions or tools impact on electoral accountability?
- [Post-2015 accountability mechanisms](https://gsdrc.org/publications/post-2015-accountability-mechanisms/) - Identify literature on accountability mechanisms for tracking progress on development after the Millennium Development Goals expire in 2015. Where possible, identify how have these been received by governments, civil society and businesses.
- [Approaches to civic education](https://gsdrc.org/publications/approaches-to-civic-education/) - Please identify examples of best practice civic education programmes in African countries, summarising key features and success factors of the programmes and providing links or contact information where more detailed information can be obtained. Please focus on 1) the nature of civic education frameworks and institutional arrangements and 2) Methods of delivering civic education.
- [State legitimacy in Afghanistan and the role of the international community](https://gsdrc.org/publications/state-legitimacy-in-afghanistan-and-the-role-of-the-international-community/) - What does the literature identify as the main factors that support or undermine the legitimacy of the Afghan state? What evidence is there that the international community has influenced state legitimacy in Afghanistan over the past 12 years? What opportunities (and risks) are there for the international community to support state legitimacy in Afghanistan?
- [Poverty Reduction Actors in the MENA Region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/poverty-reduction-actors-in-the-mena-region/) - Please identify literature on actors in poverty reduction in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. These can include NGOs, civil society organisations, religious actors, political movements, governments, etc. Please focus on national and regional actors, and not European and US influence.
- [Civil Society Funding Mechanisms](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-society-funding-mechanisms/) - Please identify literature on civil society funding mechanisms.
- [Budget Support and Civil Society](https://gsdrc.org/publications/budget-support-and-civil-society/) - What experience is there of civil society engagement with poverty reduction budget support? What mechanisms and agreements are used? What guidance exists on best practice if any? And what has been documented on results and experiences including case studies?
- [Research on Social Movements](https://gsdrc.org/publications/research-on-social-movements/) - What actors are carrying out analytical work on the contexts and drivers that generate social movements in Africa and Asia and what are the main issues they are investigating?
- [Social Movements and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-movements-and-poverty-reduction/) - Please provide case studies, examples, and analytical work on how social movements have contributed to development/poverty reduction.
- [Donor Engagement with Social Movements](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-engagement-with-social-movements/) - Please provide case studies, examples, and analytical work on how donors have engaged with social movements.
- [Performance of Civil Society Organisations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/performance-of-civil-society-organisations/) - What evidence exists of the relative cost effectiveness, efficiency, impact and quality demonstrated by civil society organisations, in comparison to the UN or profit-making organisations?
- [Civil Society and Excluded Groups](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-society-and-excluded-groups/) - What literature/evidence is there on the ‘value added’ of working through civil society to reach excluded groups?
- [NGOs in the Palestinian Territories](https://gsdrc.org/publications/ngos-in-the-palestinian-territories/) - Please provide an overview of Palestinian NGOs in the West Bank and Gaza.Please assess the actual and potential contribution of NGOs to rural and private sector development and in strengthening Palestinian civil society.
- [Community Empowerment Outcomes – South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-empowerment-outcomes-south-asia/) - Please provide an overview of selected community empowerment initiatives in South Asia and their outcomes.
- [The dynamics of social movements in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-dynamics-of-social-movements-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - This literature review assesses the available academic and policy-oriented literature on social movements in fragile and conflict-affected contexts. It examines who becomes involved in collective action and why, the barriers to mobilisation and, where social movements do emerge, how these are able to sustain mobilisation and broaden their membership base to reflect the interests of
- [PNPM/Community-driven development in Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/pnpmcommunity-driven-development-in-indonesia/) - Please synthesise information and lessons learned from the Indonesian National Program for Community Empowerment (PNPM) and where relevant other community-driven development (CDD) programmes in Indonesia. Specifically, please highlight available information on: 1) to what extent have CDD programmes in Indonesia contributed to women’s equality and empowerment and what are the challenges to promoting gender equality in CDD processes; 2) to what extent have civil society organisations (CSOs) supported communities to get value from CDD programmes and what are their strengths and weaknesses in CDD programmes; 3) what are the most effective types of monitoring and evaluation activities that can inform programme improvement in CDD?
- [Multi-donor support mechanisms for civil society](https://gsdrc.org/publications/multi-donor-support-mechanisms-for-civil-society/) - What is the current state of experience globally with multi-donor platforms for civil society, particularly in support for voice and accountability and/or social accountability? Identify initiatives (possibly in Africa) and results.
- [Democratic governance initiatives  civic education and media](https://gsdrc.org/publications/democratic-governance-initiatives-civic-education-and-media/) - Links between democratic governance initiatives and poverty reduction: Please identify some examples of successful democratic governance interventions with a specific focus on supporting civic education and free and independent media, and how do these interventions impact on poverty reduction? Please do a short literature review with an emphasis on lessons learnt. Please also identify and summarise evaluations of implemented development programs.
- [Democratic governance initiatives - policy advocacy](https://gsdrc.org/publications/democratic-governance-initiatives-policy-advocacy/) - Links between democratic governance initiatives and poverty reduction: Please identify some examples of successful democratic governance interventions with a specific focus on supporting policy advocacy, and how do these interventions impact on poverty reduction? Please do a short literature review with an emphasis on lessons learnt. Please also identify and summarise evaluations of implemented development programmes.
- [Social mobilisation in urban contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-mobilisation-in-urban-contexts/) - Identify effective social mobilisation approaches for service delivery in urban contexts. Where possible, look to identify and map approaches that are relevant to, or are used in, Pakistan.
- [Gender Equality in Parliamentary Strengthening and Electoral Support](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-equality-in-parliamentary-strengthening-and-electoral-support/) - Please examine the literature on gender equality in parliamentary strengthening and electoral support to produce a summary of the main issues and debates.
- [M&E of Parliamentary Strengthening and Electoral Support Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/me-of-parliamentary-strengthening-and-electoral-support-programmes/) - Please provide an overview of the literature on measuring, monitoring, and evaluating programmes for parliamentary strengthening and electoral support, including tools and methodologies.
- [Donor Activity on Parliamentary Strengthening and Electoral Support](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-activity-on-parliamentary-strengthening-and-electoral-support/) - Collect information on current strategies on parliamentary strengthening and electoral support from a selection of major donor agencies (including any international agencies supporting this sort of work, not only bilateral and multilateral donors).
- [Lessons Learned on Parliamentary Strengthening](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-learned-on-parliamentary-strengthening/) - Please collect and summarise any available evaluations and lessons learned from parliamentary strengthening programmes.
- [Integrating parliamentary and political party strengthening in sectoral programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/integrating-parliamentary-and-political-party-strengthening-in-sectoral-programmes/) - Please identify examples of how donors have integrated work with, and provided support to, parliaments and political parties within major sectoral programmes (health, education, etc). If available, identify evidence on the impact of such an approach.
- [Impact of parliamentary and party assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-parliamentary-and-party-assistance/) - Please briefly summarise the number, type and headline findings from any impact evaluations completed in the last ten years on parliamentary and party assistance (programme specific or broader). Restrict evaluations to those that have used rigorous evaluation processes, summarise impact evidence and not lessons learned, and try to identify planned evaluations as well as existing evaluations.
- [Donor support of African parliaments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-support-of-african-parliaments/) - Identify in which areas of parliamentary strengthening donors support parliaments in Africa. Where possible identify how donors balance between supporting MPs and permanent staff, whether donors commonly undertake field visits, whether donors support parliamentary operational or recurrent costs, and the evidence of key factors of success and failure for parliamentary support.
- [Working with members of parliament's constituency funds](https://gsdrc.org/publications/working-with-members-of-parliaments-constituency-funds/) - We would like to know whether any donors have attempted to work with/leverage MP constituency funds for developmental outcomes. We would like to know which donors in what countries, what successes and what failures have been documented. If available we would be interested in evidence on why those efforts succeeded/failed. We are interested in examples from anywhere they may be found.
- [Communist Government in Kerala, India](https://gsdrc.org/publications/communist-government-in-kerala-india/) - What has been the experience of democratically-elected Communist parties in the state of Kerala, India, particularly in terms of social policy?
- [Political Party Financing](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-party-financing/) - Please identify literature on political party financing in the developing world, particularly Africa – highlighting key methods, lessons learned and best practice.
- [Election-related Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/election-related-conflict/) - Please identify literature and lessons learned on election-related conflict, including its prevention and mitigation. Countries of interest include DRC/ Kenya/ Afghanistan / Iraq/ Timor.
- [Gender and Elections in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-and-elections-in-afghanistan/) - Please identify: i) literature on the barriers and opportunities for female participation in elections in Afghanistan; and ii) lessons learnt from gender work in other countries' elections commissions - particularly in fragile/conflict-affected countries and/or in Islamic countries – focusing particularly on women's political and electoral participation.
- [Electoral support interventions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/electoral-support-interventions/) - What literature exists on lessons learned and impacts of electoral support interventions?
- [Impact of Professional Election Security](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-professional-election-security/) - Identify and summarise the evidence on the impact of professional election security on elections / a country's development.
- [Management Arrangements in UN-led Electoral Assistance Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/management-arrangements-in-un-led-electoral-assistance-programmes/) - Please provide examples of recently used management arrangements in electoral assistance programmes led by the UN.
- [Monitoring and evaluation of electoral support](https://gsdrc.org/publications/monitoring-and-evaluation-of-electoral-support/) - Please provide an overview of approaches to monitoring and evaluation of electoral support. Please include information on indicators for measuring: the performance of an electoral event; and the impact of donor support to components of the electoral cycle.
- [Electoral monitoring, voter education and election-related violence](https://gsdrc.org/publications/electoral-monitoring-voter-education-and-election-related-violence/) - Is there any analysis on whether election monitoring reduces election-related violence? Does research point to any particular strategies that are more or less effective than others? Is there any analysis that compares the relative value of investing in voter education against investment in election monitoring to reduce election-related violence? Is there any analysis on the kinds of voter education that work best in different environments?
- [Humanitarian response to the post-election violence in Kenya in 2007/8](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-response-to-the-post-election-violence-in-kenya-in-20078/) - What are the main conclusions/lessons/recommendations from reviews and evaluations of the humanitarian response to the post-election violence in Kenya 2007/8?
- [Impact of election assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-election-assistance/) - Please summarise the number, type and headline findings from any impact evaluations completed in the last 10 years on election assistance (programme specific or broader). Restrict evaluations to those that have used rigorous evaluation processes, summarise impact evidence and not lessons learned, and try to identify planned evaluations as well as existing evaluations.
- [Electoral compliance units](https://gsdrc.org/publications/electoral-compliance-units/) - Identify and summarise literature on the international experience in establishing ‘elections compliance units’ to enable prosecution of electoral laws.
- [Cost of elections in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cost-of-elections-in-fragile-states/) - Please provide a comparison of how much national elections (Presidential and Parliamentary) have cost per capita in fragile states since 2000.
- [Voting behaviour of marginalised groups in Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/voting-behaviour-of-marginalised-groups-in-indonesia/) - Do voters from marginalised groups choose candidates for subnational executive and legislative positions on the basis of performance or anticipated performance in public service delivery that are relevant to their particular needs? In what ways, if any, have successful strategies been used by marginalised groups to ensure candidates for election and elected officials pay attention to their concerns, and how have these differed from strategies used by non-marginalised groups?
- [Voting behaviour in Indonesia  Impact of information and performance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/voting-behaviour-in-indonesia-impact-of-information-and-performance/) - Does information provided to voters about the performance of subnational executives and/or parliaments in public service delivery impact on the electability of the incumbent? Do voters choose candidates for subnational executive and legislative positions on the basis of performance or anticipated performance in relation to public service delivery? What factors are significant?
- [Direct elections and responsiveness in Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/direct-elections-and-responsiveness-in-indonesia/) - Are directly elected subnational executives more responsive to citizens’ needs than indirectly elected subnational executives? If not, what development interventions make directly elected subnational executives more likely to be responsive to citizens?
- [Dealing with election-related violence in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/dealing-with-election-related-violence-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Identify literature on lessons learned for dealing with election-related violence in fragile and conflict-affected states. Where possible, look for literature on running elections in sub-national conflict areas and how armed groups have interacted with an election process – both positively and negatively.
- [Non-State Providers of Health Services in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/non-state-providers-of-health-services-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Collect information on delivery of health services by non-state providers in fragile and conflict-affected states, highlighting any evaluations of effectiveness in terms of 1) how they contribute to supporting government policies, strategies and systems, and 2) the effectiveness of the delivery of the services. What lessons arise from these evaluations?
- [The Impact of Conflict on Women’s Education, Employment and Health Care](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-conflict-on-womens-education-employment-and-health-care/) - Conflict has generally restricted women’s freedom of movement. This has had effects on education, employment and health care. Is this effect universal? Focus on the Middle East, Latin America, and central and east Asia.
- [Experience with Health SWAps](https://gsdrc.org/publications/experience-with-health-swaps/) - What are the key determinants of success in donor/government Sector Wide Approaches (SWAps), particularly in the Health Sector? What are the institutional, political and contextual pre-requisites that make SWAps a success, particularly in the Health Sector? What are the different models of SWAps that have been used, and with what success?
- [Mobile Telephony for Improved Health Service and Data Management](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mobile-telephony-for-improved-health-service-and-data-management/) - Please identify recent innovations and emerging best practices in the use of mobile telephony to improve health service outcomes and data management in post-conflict settings. Particularly interested in learning about simple / low-tech opportunities or programs that have helped improve drug distribution, health human resource or health information systems and which may possibly be applied in the Solomon Islands in future years.
- [Post-conflict Rehabilitation of Education Services](https://gsdrc.org/publications/post-conflict-rehabilitation-of-education-services/) - Please identify literature on the rehabilitation of basic services delivery and governance - particularly education governance - in post-2005 Aceh and/or in other post-conflict environments.
- [Non-State Providers of Education in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/non-state-providers-of-education-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Collect information on delivery of education services by non-state providers in fragile and conflict-affected states, highlighting any evaluations of effectiveness in terms of 1) how they contribute to supporting government policies, strategies and systems, and 2) the effectiveness of the delivery of the services. What lessons arise from these evaluations?
- [Output-based aid in water and sanitation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/output-based-aid-in-water-and-sanitation/) - Please identify, review and synthesise the literature on the effectiveness and risks associated with using output-based aid (OBA) in states with weak capacity to incentivise rural water and sanitation services. Specific issues of interest are the extent of adoption, practical challenges for implementation, evidence of sustainable improvements in service delivery, and exit strategies for donors.
- [Vulnerable groups in Burma and access to services](https://gsdrc.org/publications/vulnerable-groups-in-burma-and-access-to-services/) - Who are the most vulnerable people in Burma? What barriers do they face in accessing services?
- [Regional development programmes and poverty reduction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/regional-development-programmes-and-poverty-reduction/) - What evidence is there of the performance or impact of regional development programmes in reducing poverty at the national level? What aid delivery channels have been most effective in this regard?
- [Community-based disaster risk management in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-based-disaster-risk-management-in-pakistan/) - Please provide an overview of the literature on Community-Based Disaster Risk Management in Pakistan. Identify successes and failures (including with regard to inclusion), and key factors of success and failure. Where possible, consider variation among provinces, engagement with local and district government, and the types and methodologies of interventions supported, including links with environmental management.
- [Literature and debates around ‘choice’ as a notion in development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/literature-and-debates-around-choice-as-a-notion-in-development/) - What are the strongest groups of literature and main debates around 'choice' as a notion in development?
- [Poor people’s rights and successful legal actions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/poor-peoples-rights-and-successful-legal-actions/) - Please provide case studies of how poor people, or civil society acting on their behalf, have successfully claimed their human rights through legal mechanisms. The case studies should describe the legal actions successfully taken on a rights issue (as used in combination with other types of social mobilisation), and the short- and long-term impact these actions have had for poor people on the issue considered. Cases should focus on hard law mechanisms. If possible, the cases should cover a range of human rights and a broad geographical scope, with cases on sub-Saharan Africa and Asia focused on human rights claims at the national level.
- [Public Financial Management and Frontline Service Delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/public-financial-management-and-frontline-service-delivery/) - What are the key issues to consider when designing a PFM reform programme which targets effective frontline service delivery? Please also provide examples of successful PFM interventions which have improved frontline service delivery and lessons from cases when this has not worked and why.
- [Trust Funds to Pay Security Forces Salaries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/trust-funds-to-pay-security-forces-salaries/) - What are lessons learnt from using trust funds to pay security force salaries? In particular: what research has been done on LOTFA (the Law and Order Trust Fund for Afghanistan)? What other lessons are known about using trust funds in other countries to pay police salaries?
- [Staff Retention in African Public Service](https://gsdrc.org/publications/staff-retention-in-african-public-service/) - Please identify lessons learned and experiences in supporting and funding staff retention in the public service in Africa, with a focus on Supreme Audit Institutions / Auditor General's Offices.
- [Public sector provision of services in PNG](https://gsdrc.org/publications/public-sector-provision-of-services-in-png/) - Please identify literature on the performance, management and administration of the public sector in Papua New Guinea, with particular attention to public service provision (health and education).
- [Examples of successful fuel subsidy removal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/examples-of-successful-fuel-subsidy-removal/) - Identify developing country examples of successful removal of fuel subsidies and identify why they were successful. How did they make it a) politically feasible and b) help cushion the impact on the poor, middle class and the vested interests.
- [Impact of municipal billing systems on revenue collection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-municipal-billing-systems-on-revenue-collection/) - Identify literature regarding the impact of municipal billing systems on revenue collection.
- [Incentivising governments to improve service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/incentivising-governments-to-improve-service-delivery/) - What kind of incentives can be used to encourage government agencies to deliver basic services? At what point in the chain is it most effective to build incentives for better service delivery? Provide examples of successful international development interventions and explain factors that account for this success.
- [Measuring the impact of PFM reforms on service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/measuring-the-impact-of-pfm-reforms-on-service-delivery/) - Identify ways in which to measure the impact of PFM reforms on service delivery performance.
- [Increasing financial investment in women and girls through gender responsive budgeting](https://gsdrc.org/publications/increasing-financial-investment-in-women-and-girls-through-gender-responsive-budgeting/) - How successful has Gender Responsive Budgeting been in increasing financial investment in girls and women, and in gender equality? Identify literature on: what approaches have worked and why; criticisms of GRB; and alternative approaches to increasing financial investment in women and girls.
- [Prioritising and sequencing public sector reform](https://gsdrc.org/publications/prioritising-and-sequencing-public-sector-reform/) - Identify and summarise literature on prioritising and sequencing public sector reform in developing countries. Where possible, focus on policy and planning, public financial management (PFM) and civil service reform.
- [New thinking on governance issues](https://gsdrc.org/publications/new-thinking-on-governance-issues/) - Provide relevant sources for the most recent new thinking on the following governance issues: political economy, public administration, public financial management, procurement, and social accountability.
- [Incentives for gender responsive budgeting](https://gsdrc.org/publications/incentives-for-gender-responsive-budgeting/) - Identify literature on effective incentives for gender responsive budgeting. Where possible, focus on non-cash-based rewards and sanctions, and identify material on potential wider impacts on women's empowerment.
- [Examples of PFM impacts on gender equality](https://gsdrc.org/publications/examples-of-pfm-impacts-on-gender-equality/) - Identify examples of public financial management (PFM) reforms which have impacted on gender equality? Where possible, identify if specific types of PFM reform are more likely than other reforms to impact on gender equality, and if these PFM reforms are more likely to impact on gender equality than other policy objectives.
- [Pro-poor national budgets](https://gsdrc.org/publications/pro-poor-national-budgets/) - What national budget expenditure (especially in Africa and specifically Nigeria) has the most impact on poverty reduction and pro poor growth?
- [Designing and monitoring PFM reform programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/designing-and-monitoring-pfm-reform-programmes/) - The PEFA framework is the most comprehensive assessment instrument. It provides indicators to measure all dimensions of a PFM system. While PEFA assessments are now in wide usage, other diagnostic instruments and tools – like the IMF Fiscal Transparency Code and various World Bank and OECD tools – are used alongside them for more specific purposes. Alternatively,
- [Vetting Public Employees](https://gsdrc.org/publications/vetting-public-employees/) - Please provide examples of current policies, good practices, and lessons learned for vetting public employees in various countries. What restrictions should there be on holding public sector positions for people who have a criminal record? How can sensitive public sector posts be defined that require a higher level of vetting? Are there examples of vetting policies that could be shared?
- [Political Economy of Civil Service Reform](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-civil-service-reform/) - Please provide recent literature on the political economy of civil service reform, with a particular focus on how civil service reform is subject to political considerations, ethnic and regional factors, and the power and interests of bureaucrats and politicians. Please include empirical examples from Asia, Africa and Latin America.
- [Support to Public Administration Reform in Central and Eastern Europe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/support-to-public-administration-reform-in-central-and-eastern-europe/) - Please provide examples and assessments of coordinated donor support to public administration reform (PAR), particularly focusing on multi-donor trust funds, joint or pooled funds, and sector-wide approaches in the transition countries of Central and Eastern Europe.
- [Performance Related Pay](https://gsdrc.org/publications/performance-related-pay/) - Please identify recent resources and lessons learned on the introduction of performance-based pay in central government administrations in developing countries.
- [Monitoring and Evaluating Civil Service Performance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/monitoring-and-evaluating-civil-service-performance/) - Summarise recent research findings and intellectual debate on how to best monitor and evaluate civil service performance, including international best practice and issues around standardised indicators (along the lines of the PEFA framework).
- [Signature and Compliance with the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/signature-and-compliance-with-the-extractive-industries-transparency-initiative-eiti/) - What explanations does the published and grey literature on the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) provide in relation to: national governments' decisions to sign up to the EITI, or not; and the non-compliance of existing signatories?
- [Land transparency programmes and land data platforms](https://gsdrc.org/publications/land-transparency-programmes-and-land-data-platforms/) - Identify evidence of successful land transparency programmes, focusing on how these programmes were delivered, challenges encountered and how these were overcome. Identify examples of successful pilots of national land data platforms that could be scaled up and assess whether these are the same as online land registers. If available, provide details of the costs associated with developing a public and open database.
- [Evidence on ‘rule of law’ aid initiatives](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-rule-of-law-aid-initiatives/) - Does the rule of law boost development and reduce poverty? Provide evidence from successful aid initiatives.
- [State fragility and social cohesion](https://gsdrc.org/publications/state-fragility-and-social-cohesion/) - What is the current state of knowledge in the literature on state fragility regarding social cohesion as either a negative or positive factor? What are donor approaches to building social cohesion in fragile states?
- [Faith-based organisations, conflict resolution and anti-corruption](https://gsdrc.org/publications/faith-based-organisations-conflict-resolution-and-anti-corruption/) - What is the evidence on faith-based organisations' (FBOs) role in conflict resolution? What is the evidence on FBOs and corruption?
- [Effects of decentralisation on social spending](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effects-of-decentralisation-on-social-spending/) - What is the evidence of numerically quantifiable benefits from development interventions that have created or strengthened local elected councils? In particular, is there any evidence that locally elected or newly devolved councils have, through their oversight role on budget allocations and expenditure increased the amount spent on social sectors, e.g. education and health?
- [Estimating the 'legitimate' percentage of annual military expenditures](https://gsdrc.org/publications/estimating-the-legitimate-percentage-of-annual-military-expenditures/) - Identify frameworks to estimate the 'legitimate' annual percentage of expenditure spent by different states on the military, which may vary according to issues such as history, geography, politics and defence needs.
- [‘Voices of the Poor’ in Southern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/voices-of-the-poor-in-southern-africa/) - Have there been any recent regional ‘voices of the poor’ type studies for Southern Africa (SADC region)? If not, please review national literature. What are poor people themselves saying about poverty? Are there commonalities across and within the region?
- [Religious Identity and Inequality in the MENA region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/41189/) - Religious Identity and Inequality in the MENA region: What are the links between religious identity and inequality in MENA countries?
- [Climate Change and Social Protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-social-protection/) - How are social protection mechanisms being used to assist vulnerable communities adapt to the impacts of climate change (with particular attention to women and children)?
- [Gender Inequality in Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-inequality-in-bangladesh/) - What are the key characteristics of gender inequality in Bangladesh?
- [Gender Issues in the Pacific Islands](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-issues-in-the-pacific-islands/) - What are the key issues relating to gender in the Pacific Island countries – particularly Solomon Islands, Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati, Nauru, Fiji and Vanuatu? Please include information on key trends and current issues; statistics; relevant government policies; anthropological texts; and high profile messages and statements.
- [Mapping Research Programmes on Conflict and Social Cohesion](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-research-programmes-on-conflict-and-social-cohesion/) - Please provide a mapping of organisations (donors, academic institutions and NGOs) currently undertaking research on the linkages between conflict, state fragility and social cohesion, including an overview of their current work.
- [Mapping Research on Migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-research-on-migration/) - Please identify the key organisations working on migration and development. For the key organisations, please provide an overview of the current and (where possible) planned research activities being undertaken as well as an overview of their key outputs.
- [Identity Politics in Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/identity-politics-in-nepal/) - Please identify literature concerning ‘identity politics’ in Nepal over the past 20 years.
- [Equality and Human Rights Commission](https://gsdrc.org/publications/equality-and-human-rights-commission/) - Please provide information, including lessons learned, on how the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (and possibly other related UK/European institutions) has contributed towards promoting inclusion of socially and politically excluded groups.
- [Aid Interventions on Gender and Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/aid-interventions-on-gender-and-conflict/) - What aid interventions have been effective in post-conflict situations? Where in the MECAB region (notably the Middle East and Eastern and Central Asia) has aid been effective in alleviating the impacts on women’s lives in three respects: freedom of movement and access to services; gender-based violence; and voice and participation? Where in the MECAB region has aid been effective in preventing or reversing the social processes noted above?
- [Conflict and Sexual and Domestic Violence against Women](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-and-sexual-and-domestic-violence-against-women/) - Conflict has often been associated with rape. Has conflict inevitably been associated with increases in violence against women (including domestic violence)?
- [Gender Equality in the Occupied Palestinian Territories](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-equality-in-the-occupied-palestinian-territories/) - Please provide a summary of gender equality analyses carried out in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. What is the most recent analytical work focused on issues of gender equality in the OPTs. What are the priorities identified by this work? Does there appear to be a consensus among agencies about the causes, consequences and impacts of gender inequalities?
- [Climate Change Adaptation Training](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-adaptation-training/) - Please identify a range of training centres and/or training courses on climate change adaptation. Ideally, courses or centres will have a greater focus on social impact and links to public policy and planning. Courses should be short, a few days to a couple of weeks. In-house options from multilateral agencies might also be a possibility.
- [Governance in Malawi](https://gsdrc.org/publications/governance-in-malawi/) - Please provide key resources on current political and economic governance issues in Malawi.
- [Violence Against Women Interventions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/violence-against-women-interventions/) - What international evidence exists on effective policy responses to address violence against women – outside of conflict-affected contexts?
- [Conceptualising Inequality](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conceptualising-inequality/) - What are the key theories/ understandings of the concept of inequality, specifically intra-country inequality?
- [Child Marriage](https://gsdrc.org/publications/child-marriage/) - Please provide a short report on child marriage, focusing on prevalence, trends and impact.
- [Gender and Conflict Assessments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-and-conflict-assessments/) - Please provide a summary of key documents related to a) the methodology, and b) key examples of country Gender and Conflict Assessments.
- [Women’s Education, Conflict and Stability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-education-conflict-and-stability/) - What international evidence exists on whether states where women are better educated are more stable and less affected by conflict?
- [Land and Property Rights Interventions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/land-and-property-rights-interventions/) - What interventions related to land and property rights have led to positive outcomes for poor people, especially women, in LICs?
- [Social Protection and Access to Education](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-protection-and-access-to-education/) - Please identify lessons learnt from social protection measures (such as school grants, cash grants and school feeding programs) to reduce the financial barriers to accessing schools in difficult environments.
- [Mapping of Organisations Countering Trafficking](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-of-organisations-countering-trafficking/) - Who are the key players and what are the main programmes on tackling trafficking of women and children in South Asia?
- [Gender Equality in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-equality-in-fragile-states/) - What interventions in fragile states have promoted gender equality, and have also supported peacebuilding and state-building?
- [Donor Experience Working with Traditional and Religious Institutions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-experience-working-with-traditional-and-religious-institutions/) - Identify and summarise donor experience of working with traditional and religious institutions on development goals. Where possible focus on Islamic institutions and activities that support the empowerment of women.
- [Global Drivers of Conflict and Instability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/global-drivers-of-conflict-and-instability/) - What are the key global drivers of conflict and instability discussed in recent literature?
- [Climate Change, Empowerment and Accountability](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-empowerment-and-accountability/) - How can climate change policy and interventions best work to empower poor and vulnerable individuals and communities and effectively utilise accountability mechanisms to ensure their concerns are addressed?
- [Climate Change and Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-empowerment/) - How has accountability and empowerment been introduced and conceptualised in climate change mitigation and adaptation policies/interventions (excluding community-based adaptation)?
- [Evidence on Women’s Access to Financial Services](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-womens-access-to-financial-services/) - Is there any evidence to indicate (i) that a lack of access to financial services in LICs is worse for women than men; and (ii) how a lack of access to financial services constrains women’s economic empowerment?
- [Evidence-based strategies for preventing child/early marriage](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-based-strategies-for-preventing-childearly-marriage/) - Please provide a review of strategies for preventing child/early marriage and evidence about their effectiveness.
- [Cooperatives and Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cooperatives-and-development/) - Please provide an overview of the role of cooperatives in pro-poor aid interventions and development, and identify donor approaches and lessons learned in supporting and facilitating their role and impact. In relation to aid interventions (donor involvement), please outline best practices, advantages/disadvantages of different approaches and recent lessons learned. Grateful for inclusion of examples, empirical evidence and any seminal research in this specific field where it exists.
- [Key messages from research on women and work in low income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/key-messages-from-research-on-women-and-work-in-low-income-countries/) - What are the key messages arising from recent research on women and work in low-income countries, and what are the gaps in current evidence?
- [Good practice findings of donor efforts to support sustainable gender equality](https://gsdrc.org/publications/good-practice-findings-of-donor-efforts-to-support-sustainable-gender-equality/) - What good practice findings are available of Donor efforts (eg DfID, AusAID, USAID, World Bank, UNDP, UNHCR) in the last ten years that led to sustainable improvements in gender equality and female empowerment?
- [The impact of human trafficking on people and countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-human-trafficking-on-people-and-countries/) - Please provide an overview of the impacts of human trafficking on people and countries
- [Combating human trafficking – approaches and lessons](https://gsdrc.org/publications/combating-human-trafficking-approaches-and-lessons/) - Please provide an overview of the principal approaches used to combat trafficking by the major global actors, and the associated lessons learned and gaps in knowledge
- [Early marriage and sexual and reproductive health](https://gsdrc.org/publications/early-marriage-and-sexual-and-reproductive-health/) - Please provide a short report on the relationship between child marriage and sexual, reproductive and maternal health behaviour and outcomes including the age of onset of sexual activity; age of first pregnancy; number and spacing of births; use of modern methods of contraception; number of unintended pregnancies and vulnerability to contracting HIV and other STIs. Where available, please provide contextual examples and information on social norms and practices that influence these patterns and the impacts of any changes in these norms and practices.
- [International Instruments and Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting](https://gsdrc.org/publications/international-instruments-and-female-genital-mutilationcutting/) - What international instruments exist to combat FGM/C?
- [Key Resources on Gender and Humanitarian Responses](https://gsdrc.org/publications/key-resources-on-gender-and-humanitarian-responses/) - Please identify the best toolkits and other resources for advisers to read on how to ensure humanitarian responses deliver for girls and women
- [Girls’ Access to Natural Resources](https://gsdrc.org/publications/girls-access-to-natural-resources/) - Identify a selection of key recent (2005-2011) studies looking at the link between girls’ access to natural resources and empowerment in the context of rural poverty
- [Policies on Displacement and Resettlement](https://gsdrc.org/publications/policies-on-displacement-and-resettlement/) - Identify key donor and NGO approaches to preventing or limiting the impact of development-induced displacement and resettlement. Where possible give examples of how these policies and procedures have been applied.
- [Time use studies and women’s empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/time-use-studies-and-womens-empowerment/) - Please provide any studies relating to women's time use in Zambia, and literature linking time use studies to women's empowerment activities.
- [How have social protection systems contributed to social and economic development in Singapore?](https://gsdrc.org/publications/how-have-social-protection-systems-contributed-to-social-and-economic-development-in-singapore/) - When and why were social protection systems introduced in Singapore What was the level of development and structure of their economies at this time and what sort of social protection systems were introduced? What is the evidence of the contribution of the social protection systems to national social and economic development?
- [How have social protection systems contributed to social and economic development in Indonesia?](https://gsdrc.org/publications/how-have-social-protection-systems-contributed-to-social-and-economic-development-in-indonesia/) - When and why were social protection systems introduced in Indonesia? What was the level of development and structure of their economies at this time and what sort of social protection systems were introduced? What is the evidence of the contribution of the social protection systems to national social and economic development?
- [How have social protection systems contributed to social and economic development in China?](https://gsdrc.org/publications/how-have-social-protection-systems-contributed-to-social-and-economic-development-in-china/) - When and why were social protection systems introduced in China What was the level of development and structure of their economies at this time and what sort of social protection systems were introduced? What is the evidence of the contribution of the social protection systems to national social and economic development?
- [Political commitments to improve adolescent sexual and reproductive health](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-commitments-to-improve-adolescent-sexual-and-reproductive-health/) - Please provide examples of the types of political commitments at national/federal state level needed to help improve adolescent girls' sexual and reproductive health outcomes in developing countries (outcomes include: delaying first sexual activity, marriage and first pregnancy; improving access to family planning/dual protection and maternal health care; and reducing the prevalence of STIs (including HIV), FGM/C, and maternal mortality). What factors (domestic and international) have contributed to building this commitment? What (if any) has been the role of donors and other international actors in supporting this?
- [Potential benefits of part-time working](https://gsdrc.org/publications/potential-benefits-of-part-time-working/) - Identify recent research that a) describes recent trends in part-time working in the UK and globally, particularly in the current economic crisis; b) analyses the potential benefits of part-time working for individual workers, the organisations they work in and for the economy as a whole; and c) identifies successful models and policies for part-time working.
- [Gender Inclusive Urban Planning](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-inclusive-urban-planning/) - Please provide information on the key topics related to the most urgent areas that need reform in the policy, legal and regulatory environment to enable gender and socially inclusive urban planning in South Asia.
- [Measuring and Evaluating Women's Leadership](https://gsdrc.org/publications/measuring-and-evaluating-womens-leadership/) - What types of measures are currently being used or are emerging to measure and evaluate women’s leadership (focusing particularly on studies on Asia – especially Indonesia and the Pacific)? Provide a summary of these measures and, if available, critical appraisal of their application.
- [Measuring and Evaluating Women's Economic Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/publications/measuring-and-evaluating-womens-economic-empowerment/) - What types of measures are currently being used to measure and evaluate women’s economic empowerment (focusing particularly on studies on South Asia – especially Bangladesh and Nepal)? Provide a summary of these measures and, if available, critical appraisal of their application. Provide a broader summary of the current critiques and views on approaches to measuring women's economic empowerment.
- [Women's Economic Empowerment in the Pacific](https://gsdrc.org/publications/womens-economic-empowerment-in-the-pacific/) - Review data and any literature (published and grey) relating to women's economic situation, particularly at the household/community level across the Pacific (or where necessary from other developing countries). Identify major trends in spending (comparing men and women), the chief barriers to women having more income and control of their finances, and the key opportunities for programmes to address economic empowerment of women at the household/community level.
- [Successful Gender Ministries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/successful-gender-ministries/) - Please identify examples of 'successful' gender ministries, i.e. cases where such ministries have had a discernible impact on equality or empowerment.
- [Sex selection – micro-level drivers and enabling/preventive factors](https://gsdrc.org/publications/sex-selection-micro-level-drivers-and-enablingpreventive-factors/) - (1) What are the micro-level drivers of sex selection in Asia? How do these differ between countries, states and sub-regions? (Focus primarily on south Asia, China and south east Asia); (2) What are the key contributing factors that enable or prevent sex selection? How do these differ between countries, states and sub-regions?
- [Interventions to tackle sex selection in Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/interventions-to-tackle-sex-selection-in-asia/) - What works as an effective brake on sex selection? Please provide examples of successful approaches, policies and practices that have eliminated or reduced the incidence of sex selection in Asia.
- [Violence against women and girls in Haiti](https://gsdrc.org/publications/violence-against-women-and-girls-in-haiti/) - What do we know about prevalence, drivers and perpetrators of violence against women and girls in Haiti, in both rural and urban areas? (Note any available information about trends in violence following natural disasters and other emergencies). What organisations are working to reduce women and girls’ vulnerability to violence in Haiti? Please summarise their principal programmes and projects.
- [Responding to the Syrian refugee crisis in Lebanon – lessons learned](https://gsdrc.org/publications/responding-to-the-syrian-refugee-crisis-in-lebanon-lessons-learned/) - What lessons should donors consider when responding to the Syrian refugee crisis in Lebanon? Include relevant lessons from international responses as well as Lebanon's own experience.
- [National databases of the poor for social protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/national-databases-of-the-poor-for-social-protection/) - Identify literature on creating or unifying registries to make up a national database of poor households or individuals to be used for social protection programmes. Where possible, identify the background to setting them up, the challenges involved, the lessons learned and any social protection benefits identified.
- [Post-graduation from social protection](https://gsdrc.org/publications/post-graduation-from-social-protection/) - What are the longer-term assessments of social protection graduation programmes telling us about the sustainability of these programmes? Is there evidence of good practice from states offering support to people who have 'graduated'? How can we design social protection programmes so they can most effectively help people become more productive, including by transitioning from informal to formal sector employment?
- [Social transfer evaluation syntheses](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-transfer-evaluation-syntheses/) - Please could you provide the following information on meta-evaluations and evaluation syntheses relating to social transfer programmes (i.e. transfers of cash, vouchers, and other assets), completed in the past five years: 1. Title of study (authors, date etc); 2. Web link for where the study can be found; 3. Brief information on each study.
- [Gender in Political Economy Analysis](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-in-political-economy-analysis/) - How is gender incorporated in political economy analysis, and which tools are used to do this?
- [Gender in community-driven development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/gender-in-community-driven-development/) - What is the evidence on gender considerations in community-driven development programmes? Where possible, provide information on the impact of gender on achieving programme objectives, examples of CDD impacting gender relations, good practice and challenges in including gender in programme design, implementation and evaluation.
- [Defining social protection systems](https://gsdrc.org/publications/defining-social-protection-systems/) - How do key partners define social protection systems?
- [Evaluations of scaling up](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evaluations-of-scaling-up/) - Please identify evaluations of the scaling up of programmes (at national or sub-national/regional level), prioritising those with a gender equality or social norms focus. What does and doesn’t work in the process of scaling up? Which implementing partners have been effective in taking programmes to scale?
- [Non-food items (NFIs) and the needs of women and girls in emergencies](https://gsdrc.org/publications/non-food-items-nfis-and-the-needs-of-women-and-girls-in-emergencies/) - What non-food items (NFIs) best meet the (basic and protection) needs of women and girls in emergency situations? Include beneficiary and expert feedback where available.
- [The impact of conflict on poverty](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-conflict-on-poverty/) - Provide an overview of the latest evidence since 2010 on the impact of conflict on poverty.
- [Integrated programmes supporting adolescent girls](https://gsdrc.org/publications/integrated-programmes-supporting-adolescent-girls/) - Please identify examples of integrated programmes that support adolescent girls.
- [Social protection Management Information Systems (MIS)](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-protection-management-information-systems-mis/) - Are there successful examples of Management Information Systems in social protection programmes? What are the reasons for their success and what impact have they had in making social protection programmes more effective and efficient?
- [Lessons from Female Engagement Teams](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-female-engagement-teams/) - What are the lessons on what worked well with the use of military Female Engagement Teams (both U.K. and U.S.) and what were the main challenges?
- [Climate Change and Governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-governance/) - Please identify key readings on the political and institutional implications of climate change on governance in developing countries.
- [M&E in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/me-in-fragile-states/) - Identify literature on how to measure the impact of donor engagement in fragile states.
- [Political Economy Methodologies](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-methodologies/) - Please identify political economy methodologies that could be used in the context of fragile states.
- [PRSP Monitoring and Accountability in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/prsp-monitoring-and-accountability-in-fragile-states/) - Please provide a review of the literature on monitoring and accountability mechanisms for PRSPs in post-conflict or fragile states. This should include examples as well as more general materials on best practice.
- [M&E of Participation in Governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/me-of-participation-in-governance/) - Please identify toolkits, methodologies and indicators for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of programmes aimed at improving governance (particularly of urban infrastructure/services). Please highlight methods of relevance to NGOs for monitoring and evaluating poor people's participation in decision-making processes.
- [Prevalence as an Indicator for Anti-forced labour and Anti-sex Trafficking Projects](https://gsdrc.org/publications/prevalence-as-an-indicator-for-anti-forced-labour-and-anti-sex-trafficking-projects/) - Is prevalence a suitable impact indicator for anti-forced labour and anti-sex trafficking projects? (Please provide examples of its usage, including methodologies for determining prevalence and alternative indicators used for such projects.)
- [Voice and Accountability Indexes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/voice-and-accountability-indexes/) - Identify tools/indexes/indicators that have been developed to measure the impact of development interventions (policies, programmes, projects) on voice and accountability.
- [Institutional Assessment of the Police and Justice Sectors](https://gsdrc.org/publications/institutional-assessment-of-the-police-and-justice-sectors/) - Identify real examples and case studies of institutional assessments/ analysis/ appraisals of the police and justice sectors, including any information available on the frameworks used.
- [Poverty and Vulnerability Monitoring](https://gsdrc.org/publications/poverty-and-vulnerability-monitoring/) - What significant differences are there in the methodologies used for ‘poverty monitoring’ and ‘vulnerability monitoring’? What are the strengths and weaknesses of these methodologies?
- [Methodologies for Measuring the Value of Civil Society](https://gsdrc.org/publications/methodologies-for-measuring-the-value-of-civil-society/) - What different methodologies, including Social Return on Investment, have been used to calculate the value of civil society in developing countries? What measures have been used and how have they calculated costs and benefits?
- [Impact of International Volunteering](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-international-volunteering/) - What evidence is there of the cost-effectiveness, cost-benefits, impact (on alleviating poverty and raising awareness of development) and value for money of international volunteering?
- [Evaluation of Governance Programme Indicators](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evaluation-of-governance-programme-indicators/) - Identify and summarise the literature on evaluation of performance indicators for governance programmes.
- [Critique of Governance Assessment Applications](https://gsdrc.org/publications/critique-of-governance-assessment-applications/) - Identify the key literature that critiques the use and application of governance assessments.
- [Governance/anti-corruption indicators in budget support](https://gsdrc.org/publications/governanceanti-corruption-indicators-in-budget-support/) - What specific governance indicators/benchmarks (particularly in relation to anti-corruption) have been used in budget support programmes to act as incentives for reform (within the overall framework/objective of achieving fiscal sustainability)? (If available, please include any information on which indicators have been successful and unsuccessful as an incentive and why).
- [Evidence for the Effectiveness of a Process Approach](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-for-the-effectiveness-of-a-process-approach/) - Review the evidence on the effectiveness of development initiatives that have employed a process approach, or key features of this approach.
- [Police reform evaluations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/police-reform-evaluations/) - Provide research on successful evaluations of police reform programmes. If possible focus on evaluations that aim to measure impacts on increased state capacity, citizens’ level of trust and the effect of increased stability on poverty.
- [Country Risk Indices](https://gsdrc.org/publications/country-risk-indices/) - Summarise the available country risk indices. Identify whether they assess political, social, economic and/or other risks. Where possible identify the strengths and weaknesses of these tools for investors and policy makers.
- [Effective methods to improve police performance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effective-methods-to-improve-police-performance/) - Identify examples of effective methods to improve police performance in cities and regions in developing (but not post-conflict) countries.
- [Theory-based evaluation approach](https://gsdrc.org/publications/theory-based-evaluation-approach/) - Does the literature on theory-based evaluation suggest a common and clearly defined approach to evaluation and impact evaluation? Does theory-based evaluation provide an analytical tool for carrying out the social and political analysis that should underpin impact evaluation of social development and governance programmes?
- [Remote management of projects in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/remote-management-of-projects-in-fragile-states/) - Provide examples of successful remote management of projects in fragile state settings.
- [The effectiveness of measuring influence](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-effectiveness-of-measuring-influence/) - Review a selection of evaluations of projects that sought to influence policy or opinion using advocacy, lobbying, negotiation and/or knowledge uptake, noting if they were able to evaluate the projects effectively, whether problems arose in conducting the evaluations, and what lessons can be learnt.
- [The impact of integrated missions on humanitarian operations](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-integrated-missions-on-humanitarian-operations/) - What is the evidence on the impact of integrated UN missions on the conduct of humanitarian operations? Specifically look at impact on the protection of civilians, humanitarian access and the security of humanitarian agencies, and the perception of humanitarian organisations by warring parties.
- [Current thinking on capacity development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/current-thinking-on-capacity-development/) - Summarise the latest thinking on capacity development, including the main debates, successes and challenges identified in the key literature of the last five years.
- [Monitoring and evaluating civil society partnerships](https://gsdrc.org/publications/monitoring-and-evaluating-civil-society-partnerships/) - Please identify approaches and methods used by civil society organisations (international NGOs and others) to monitor and evaluate the quality of their relationships with partner (including southern) NGOs. Please also provide a short comparative analysis.
- [Measuring disaster resilience](https://gsdrc.org/publications/measuring-disaster-resilience/) - What are the different approaches and methodologies being applied by donors, NGOs, the UN and others in measuring resilience within programming? In defining resilience the review should refer to DFID’s strategy “Defining Disaster Resilience”.
- [Indicators for conflict, stability, security, justice and peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/publications/indicators-for-conflict-stability-security-justice-and-peacebuilding/) - What indicators have been used to measure progress in conflict, stability, security, justice and peacebuilding?
- [Post-Conflict Recovery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/post-conflict-recovery/) - Identify literature on financing and coordination instruments to support post-conflict recovery.
- [Social Assessment in Disaster Reconstruction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/social-assessment-in-disaster-reconstruction/) - Please identify literature on social assessments (or social impact assessments) for disaster reconstruction. Please include examples of good practice, and methodologies.
- [Reintegration in Aceh/Post-conflict Environments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/reintegration-in-acehpost-conflict-environments/) - Please identify literature on the reintegration of former combatants in basic services – particularly education and livelihood programmes – in post-2005 Aceh and/or in other post-conflict environments.
- [Service Delivery and Stabilisation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/service-delivery-and-stabilisation/) - Please identify literature on the role of service delivery (health, education, water) in stabilisation environments. Has 'stabilisation service delivery' resulted in communities buying into the 'new' political settlement'? Are there examples of 'stabilisation' service delivery that have been institutionally sustainable (i.e. is there a 'double-win', where the intervention worked for the hearts and minds agenda and also aided institution building)?
- [Donor Initiatives to Engage with South Sudanese Diaspora](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donor-initiatives-to-engage-with-south-sudanese-diaspora/) - Please provide information on donor initiatives to engage with their South Sudanese diasporas to inform the development of their own assistance programs to South Sudan or to tap into diaspora expertise and capacity to support development in South Sudan.
- [Multi-Year Funding to Humanitarian Organisations in Protracted Crises](https://gsdrc.org/publications/multi-year-funding-to-humanitarian-organisations-in-protracted-crises/) - Identify literature, analysis and donor policies on current humanitarian funding mechanisms used by donors to provide multi-year funding to humanitarian organisations in protracted crises. Please highlight any models, policies or mechanisms recognised or suggested as best-practice.
- [Donors’ and agencies’ humanitarian protection frameworks](https://gsdrc.org/publications/donors-and-agencies-humanitarian-protection-frameworks/) - Please identify any donor humanitarian and humanitarian agencies’ protection frameworks/policies/strategies which exist. Please highlight the key focus of each of these.
- [UN Peace Support Mission Transitions - Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/publications/un-peace-support-mission-transitions-nepal/) - What analysis exists of the transition from the UN Mission in Nepal (UNMIN) to a UN country office in 2011?
- [Humanitarian work in Syria and Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-work-in-syria-and-yemen/) - Please identify humanitarian partners and projects currently operating in Syria and Yemen.
- [Preventing conflict between refugees and host communities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/preventing-conflict-between-refugees-and-host-communities/) - Provide examples of good practice/programmes in preventing/addressing conflict between refugees and host communities
- [Regional and national capacity to cope with humanitarian risk](https://gsdrc.org/publications/regional-and-national-capacity-to-cope-with-humanitarian-risk/) - Identify ways to define the regional and national capacity to cope with humanitarian risk. This is humanitarian risk relating to both natural hazards (e.g. adverse conditions, emergencies or disasters) and human-induced hazards (e.g. conflict). How is capacity being measured? Include a list of components, indicators, sources, limitations and criticality.
- [Humanitarian Capability  Definitions and Components](https://gsdrc.org/publications/humanitarian-capability-definitions-and-components/) - How is humanitarian capability defined and what are considered to be its constituent components? Humanitarian capability refers to people, institutions and systems. Based on literature from academia, practice and policy-making about the North or the South, please provide an annotated bibliography.
- [Border insecurity in North Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/border-insecurity-in-north-africa/) - What does the literature say about border insecurity across North Africa (Morocco, Mauritania, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya (Mahgreb); Egypt, Sudan and Western Sahara)?
- [Assessing seismic risk in Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/publications/assessing-seismic-risk-in-kenya/) - Identify data on, or ways to assess, seismic risk in Kenya. Where possible, identify what the data suggests about the absolute levels of risk, the relative levels of risk compared to other countries, and which populations are particularly vulnerable.
- [International aid to Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/publications/international-aid-to-lebanon/) - Please map international donor aid to Lebanon since the 2006 crisis, with a focus on the past two years. Where possible, identify recent funding committed in response to the Syrian crisis.
- [Disaster risk governance at national and sub-national levels](https://gsdrc.org/publications/disaster-risk-governance-at-national-and-sub-national-levels/) - Identify literature on the governance of disaster risk in low- and middle-income countries, at national and sub-national levels. Please provide a summary of the literature along with an annotated bibliography.
- [Democratic Republic of the Congo internally displaced persons and refugees’ relations with host communities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/democratic-republic-of-the-congo-internally-displaced-persons-and-refugees-relations-with-host-communities/) - What is the relationship between IDPs/refugees and host families and communities in the Eastern DRC and in the area of Uganda along the border with the DRC, focusing on refugees who stay informally with host communities, rather than the relationship between refugees in the formal refugee camps and the host communities in and around the camps? With the sub-questions: 1. What are the reasons that IDPs/refugees choose to stay with host families/communities and what are the reasons that host families accept that IDPs/refugees stay with them? 2. What is the relationship between IDPs/refugees and host communities? 3. What is the impact of large numbers of IDPs/refugees over a sustained period on host communities?
- [Assessing seismic risk in Ethiopia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/assessing-seismic-risk-in-ethiopia/) - Identify data on, or ways to assess, seismic risk in Ethiopia. Where possible, identify what the data suggests about the absolute levels of risk, the relative levels of risk compared to other countries, and which populations are particularly vulnerable.
- [Restrictions on humanitarian aid to refugees](https://gsdrc.org/publications/restrictions-on-humanitarian-aid-to-refugees/) - What lessons can be learnt from situations in which host governments have allowed humanitarian assistance to refugees in camps, but put restrictions on aid to those in host communities? What has been the impact of such policies and how has the humanitarian community responded to these restrictions?
- [Crisis management models in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/crisis-management-models-in-africa/) - What models of crisis management exist across Africa and what has the experience been?
- [SWAps and Justice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/swaps-and-justice/) - What are best practice and lessons learned in SWAps, particularly relating to the justice sector?
- [Pashtun Tribalism](https://gsdrc.org/publications/pashtun-tribalism/) - Please provide an overview of the literature that exists on Pashtun tribalism in the Pakistan and Afghanistan border area.
- [Stability and Development in Sudan - Three Areas](https://gsdrc.org/publications/stability-and-development-in-sudan-three-areas/) - Identify literature on the current dynamics and challenges affecting stability and development in the Three Areas, Sudan.
- [Climate change and social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-social-exclusion/) - What are the key issues and implications raised by climate change for excluded and vulnerable groups, with particular reference to disabled people, older people, children and young people?
- [Politics of Justice Sector Reform](https://gsdrc.org/publications/politics-of-justice-sector-reform/) - Please provide case studies that demonstrate how politics affect justice sector reform and vice versa, with particular focus on Asia and prison reform.
- [Migrants/Diaspora and Integration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/migrantsdiaspora-and-integration/) - Please identify research on how the involvement of migrants/disapora communities in the development of their countries of origin impacts on their integration into their host societies.
- [Equatorial Guinea and São Tomé and Principe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/equatorial-guinea-and-sao-tome-and-principe/) - Provide a brief overview of current literature available on conflict prevention and governance activities in Equatorial Guinea and São Tomé and Principe.
- [Constitutions and minorities](https://gsdrc.org/publications/constitutions-and-minorities/) - Please provide resources on effective inclusion of minority groups in constitution writing processes. We are particularly interested in examples from countries with large numbers of minority populations.
- [Information Campaigns and Migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/information-campaigns-and-migration/) - Have information campaigns that were designed to deter illegal migration from developing countries been shown to work? What is considered to be best practice?
- [Carbon Trading and Local Governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/carbon-trading-and-local-governance/) - Please identify any available information on local government involvement in carbon emission trading schemes - in particular, the prospect of gains in local revenues and other local community benefits.
- [Demand Driven Technical Assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/demand-driven-technical-assistance/) - Please identify literature and lessons learned on demand-driven technical assistance/ training - in particular to local governments in the context of decentralisation programmes.
- [Participation of Excluded Groups in Local Governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/participation-of-excluded-groups-in-local-governance/) - Please provide literature on mechanisms designed to ensure and allow the participation of excluded groups in local governance.
- [Decentralisation and Assistance to Sub-national Governments in Fragile Environments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/decentralisation-and-assistance-to-sub-national-governments-in-fragile-environments/) - Please identify literature on decentralisation and assistance to sub-national governments in fragile environments. Should policies of decentralisation be pursued in fragile environments and if so what form should they take? What type of assistance should be provided to sub-national governments in fragile environments?
- [Reviews of Decentralisation and Subnational Government Support Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/reviews-of-decentralisation-and-subnational-government-support-programmes/) - Please identify recent donor/aid agency/think tank reviews of decentralisation and sub-national government support programmes, particularly those that identify lessons learnt, and make policy recommendations for future support.
- [Religion and Democracy in Secular States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/religion-and-democracy-in-secular-states/) - Please provide a short bibliography of resources on democracy and religion in secular federal republics. Please highlight any information on how legal frameworks in these countries have been developed to support religious tolerance.
- [Peacebuilding and Access to Justice in Sri Lanka](https://gsdrc.org/publications/peacebuilding-and-access-to-justice-in-sri-lanka/) - Please identify key readings on peacebuilding and access to justice in the Sri Lankan context.
- [Regional Security Architecture](https://gsdrc.org/publications/regional-security-architecture/) - Please identify literature on regional security programmes and approaches, highlighting examples of regional security architecture and where available, lessons learned and important factors to consider in regional security approaches.
- [African Regional Governance Institutions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/african-regional-governance-institutions/) - Please identify literature assessing the effectiveness of African regional institutions working on governance.
- [Political Economy of Sub-National Government](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-sub-national-government/) - Please provide recent literature on the political economy of sub-national (state and provincial level) governance, with a particular focus on the roles and responsibilities of the relevant authorities at this level, the powers and resources at their command, their relationship with national and local governments, and the politics of their relationships with the centre.
- [Mainstreaming Peace and Conflict Prevention in Zimbabwe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mainstreaming-peace-and-conflict-prevention-in-zimbabwe/) - Please provide examples of and lessons learned from development and humanitarian interventions in Zimbabwe that have provided entry points for peacebuilding, conflict prevention, and conflict resolution.
- [Reintegration Best Practice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/reintegration-best-practice/) - Please provide authoritative resources on best practice / lessons learned from reintegration programmes (resources focusing on countries in-conflict other than Afghanistan would be particularly useful).
- [Transitional Justice and Reconciliation - Zimbabwe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transitional-justice-and-reconciliation-zimbabwe/) - Please identify recent literature on transitional justice and reconciliation in relation to Zimbabwe.
- [Civil Society and Accountability in the Occupied Palestinian Territories](https://gsdrc.org/publications/civil-society-and-accountability-in-the-occupied-palestinian-territories/) - Please provide a summary of literature on the role and effectiveness of civil society in the OPTs in strengthening accountability (of national ministries, local governments, service delivery units etc). Who are the actors and what is their capacity? What are the main avenues for engagement and has there been any assessment of their effectiveness in bringing about change?
- [Rule of Law Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/publications/rule-of-law-approaches/) - What different approaches to Rule of Law exist and what are the consequences of applying different definitions of the Rule of Law? What sources of measurement (indicators) exist internationally and how might these be applied?
- [Review of Justice Sector Support in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/review-of-justice-sector-support-in-afghanistan/) - Please provide a literature review analysing justice sector support in Afghanistan, its successes and its failures.
- [Empowerment, Choice and Agency](https://gsdrc.org/publications/empowerment-choice-and-agency/) - Please identify literature which discusses the concepts of empowerment, choice and agency.
- [Impact of Anti-Trafficking Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-anti-trafficking-programmes/) - What evidence of impact is there from anti-trafficking programmes globally and in South Asia? What lessons can be learnt from this work?
- [Impact of Family Protection Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/impact-of-family-protection-programmes/) - What evidence exists to show the impact of family protection programmes? Please focus on how these programmes have interacted with police, security and justice actors.
- [Current Trends in Governance Support](https://gsdrc.org/publications/current-trends-in-governance-support/) - 1. Provide an overview of the current trends among aid donors in their support for improved governance in partner countries. Include an outline of the key and emerging sub-sectors or areas of focus within their governance portfolios and a summary of the outcomes and results that donors are looking to achieve in their support for improved governance, their 'picture of success'. 2. Provide information (where available) of current and projected expenditure on governance support relative to other sectors, as well as relative expenditure – both current and projected – between the different governance sub-sectors or areas of focus
- [Factors Contributing to Transitional Justice Effectiveness](https://gsdrc.org/publications/factors-contributing-to-transitional-justice-effectiveness/) - What factors influence the effectiveness of international assistance for transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict situations? Please pay attention to issues such as strengthening rule of law and criminal justice, in addition to the role of non-retributive transitional justice mechanisms (whether national or international, formal or informal).
- [DDR and Transitional Justice](https://gsdrc.org/publications/ddr-and-transitional-justice/) - How have DDR programmes contributed to the restoration of peace and security in relation to transitional justice? What effects do DDR and transitional justice initiatives have on each other?
- [Governance in Southern and Eastern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/governance-in-southern-and-eastern-africa/) - What are the key governance trends in Southern and Eastern Africa?
- [Policies to counter sectarianism in MENA countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/policies-to-counter-sectarianism-in-mena-countries/) - What policies have been tried to counter sectarianism in MENA countries and what evidence of success has been found?
- [Cash payments in DDR programmes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cash-payments-in-ddr-programmes/) - What are the benefits and potential risks associated with use of cash payments for discharged combatants in DDR programmes? Where possible, please make reference to cases from Asia, and distinguish between cases where there is an accompanying rehabilitation and where there is no rehabilitation programme beyond cash payments.
- [Effects of the ‘Arab Spring’ on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effects-of-the-arab-spring-on-the-middle-east-and-north-africa-mena-region/) - What are the effects of the Arab Spring on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region?
- [Shame, Self-Esteem and Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/publications/shame-self-esteem-and-poverty/) - Provide an overview of key literature on the effects of shame and low self-esteem on poverty. What do we know about interventions that can be used to bolster self esteem?
- [The Arab Spring and its impact on human rights in the MENA region](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-arab-spring-and-its-impact-on-human-rights-in-the-mena-region/) - What is the current human rights situation in the MENA region and how has it changed as a result of the Arab Spring? Who are the risk groups in the region in regards to human rights abuses, with particular focus on ethnic and religious factions?
- [Evidence on establishment of the ‘rule of law’ through deliberate interventions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evidence-on-establishment-of-the-rule-of-law-through-deliberate-interventions/) - To what extent can the ‘rule of law’ be established through deliberate interventions (domestic or international)? (Please look for evaluations of explicit rule-of-law interventions or significant domestic change processes, and see what evidence there is and how they have been successful).
- [Aid to national human rights institutions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/aid-to-national-human-rights-institutions/) - Please identify which donors are financing National Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs) and the modalities through which they are financing them. We are also interested in whether there is a solid evidence base to suggest whether and how particular funding instruments can enhance or hinder NHRI performance and overall aid and development effectiveness.
- [Organised violence and its impacts in Central America's northern triangle](https://gsdrc.org/publications/organised-violence-and-its-impacts-in-central-americas-northern-triangle/) - What are the impacts of violence conducted by gangs and criminal organisations in Central America, particularly in the northern triangle countries (Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala), on individuals, society and public institutions?
- [Policy responses to criminal violence in Latin America and the Caribbean](https://gsdrc.org/publications/policy-responses-to-criminal-violence-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean/) - Mediation efforts between the ‘maras’ in El Salvador have led to a significant reduction in homicide rates. What other policy responses to gang and criminal violence, including but not limited to formal and informal mediation efforts, exist in Latin America and the Caribbean? What lessons can the donor community learn from them?
- [Somali networks – structures of clan and society](https://gsdrc.org/publications/somali-networks-structures-of-clan-and-society/) - Identify and synthesise studies on networks in Somalia, focusing on the structures of Somali clan and society, and including transnational as well as national networks.
- [Addressing high rates of public service absenteeism](https://gsdrc.org/publications/addressing-high-rates-of-public-service-absenteeism/) - Please identify recent innovations and emerging best practices in donor approaches to address high rates of public service absenteeism.
- [Community policing in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-policing-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Identify examples of 'community policing' in fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS). Define how different groups use the term 'community policing' and where possible, identify examples where police services engaging with communities or community leaders in FCAS have led to safer communities.
- [Relationship between illicit economic activity and illicit financial flows](https://gsdrc.org/publications/relationship-between-illicit-economic-activity-and-illicit-financial-flows/) - Identify literature which discusses the relationship between illicit economic activities (specifically people trafficking, narcotics, illicit trade in minerals and manufactured goods or arms) and illicit financial flows. Look to identify evidence which proves (or disproves) a causal relationship between the two.
- [Inter-state commitments on governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/inter-state-commitments-on-governance/) - Which UN member states have signed up to the inter-state instruments on governance, and what do these instruments say? Please provide a list with summary descriptions of a range of inter-state agreements, conventions, treaties, initiatives, plans, charters etc., at both regional and thematic levels, on any aspects of governance signed since 2000.
- [Libya: border security and regional cooperation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/libya-border-security-and-regional-cooperation/) - This rapid literature review examines security-related developments that determine Libya’s relationships with its neighbours – Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Niger, Sudan and Tunisia. The report also looks at the incentives for neighbouring countries to maintain or develop regional relationships or cross-border mechanisms with Libya and the main challenges in implementing them. It also gives an overview
- [Grievance Redress Mechanisms in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/grievance-redress-mechanisms-in-pakistan/) - Identify literature on Grievance Redress Mechanisms (GRMs) used in Pakistan. Where possible identify the models used, their approaches, the organisations involved and also their respective effectiveness.
- [Supporting local governance in protracted conflicts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/supporting-local-governance-in-protracted-conflicts/) - Please provide examples of successful interventions to support the delivery of services by local governments and administrations in areas where there is a protracted conflict?
- [Lessons from confidence building measures](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-confidence-building-measures/) - Please can you produce a short document on confidence building measures to identify lessons learned, what has worked and what has not in conflict-affected countries, and points to consider when designing CBMs including the effectiveness of different track approaches. In particular, please identify risks around ceasefires and how these have been mitigated in other conflicts. This is for a piece of work on Yemen so concrete examples from Yemen/the wider MENA
- [Operational models for politically aware subnational government projects](https://gsdrc.org/publications/operational-models-for-politically-aware-subnational-government-projects/) - Identify literature on operational models for designing politically aware projects. Where possible, identify literature which looks at cost-effectiveness and recognises variance in subnational government.
- [Formal and informal policing in Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/formal-and-informal-policing-in-iraq/) - Identify literature on improving public security in Iraq through formal and informal policing mechanisms.
- [Improving access to justice through information and communication technologies](https://gsdrc.org/publications/improving-access-to-justice-through-information-and-communication-technologies/) - Identify how information and communication technologies – including but not limited to mobile phone technology – have been used to improve access to justice in developing countries.
- [Lessons from governance interventions in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-governance-interventions-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Please identify key literature and summarise any recent (since 2011) evidence on lessons learned from donor attempts to improve / reform / transform governance in developing countries, particularly in FCAS. We are particularly interested in any evidence generated on lessons learned from “politically-smart, locally-led” approaches.
- [The multilateral system’s contribution to international development goals on governance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-multilateral-systems-contribution-to-international-development-goals-on-governance/) - What is the multilateral system’s contribution to international development goals on governance? The report will identify the international development goals on governance, and the roles of different multilateral players at national, regional and international level.
- [Climate change and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-conflict/) - Please provide key readings on the political and institutional impacts of climate change on conflict.
- [Climate Change and State Fragility](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-state-fragility/) - Please provide a literature review on the theme of climate change and state fragility, especially on any significant questions or issues that are not directly related to conflict. If possible, please highlight what thinking there is around aid effectiveness for climate change adaptation in fragile situations.
- [Climate Change and Migration](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-migration/) - How will climate change affect the movement of people living in developing countries?
- [Climate Change and Zimbabwe](https://gsdrc.org/publications/climate-change-and-zimbabwe/) - What research has been done on climate change in Zimbabwe in the last 3-5 years? How will Zimbabwe be affected by climate change? Who is likely to be most affected and how? What can be done to support Zimbabwe's poor to adapt to the impacts of climate change?
- [Long-Term Job Creation in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/long-term-job-creation-in-fragile-states/) - Please identify literature on the theme of job creation and fragile states, particularly - where available - literature on how to create sustainable employment in the longer term, how donors can help with this, and examples of successful and unsuccessful interventions.
- [Peacebuilding Commission](https://gsdrc.org/publications/peacebuilding-commission/) - Please identify literature on the effectiveness of the Peacebuilding Commission in terms of encouraging peacebuilding in the four countries on its agenda and more widely in terms of how the new peacebuilding architecture particularly the Commission has performed overall.
- [Domestic Politics of Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry](https://gsdrc.org/publications/domestic-politics-of-land-use-land-use-change-and-forestry/) - Please provide current sources on the politics of land-use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) in a domestic context, affecting climate change policy.
- [Local Government Capacity and Leadership in Fragile Areas](https://gsdrc.org/publications/local-government-capacity-and-leadership-in-fragile-areas/) - Identify literature that assesses local government capacity (either for service delivery or internal skills capacity) and leadership in fragile and conflict-affected environments.
- [Trust Funds in Fragile and Low Capacity States](https://gsdrc.org/publications/trust-funds-in-fragile-and-low-capacity-states/) - Please identify best practice, advantages/ disadvantages and lessons learned from using 'Trust Fund' arrangements in delivering development, particularly in fragile or low-capacity states.
- [Cash transfers in fragile/conflict-affected environments](https://gsdrc.org/publications/cash-transfers-in-fragileconflict-affected-environments/) - What has been the experience of social cash transfers - conditional or unconditional - in fragile and/or post-conflict states? Are there examples of this kind of scheme, or do they only operate in relatively stable countries? What are the conditions that generate success? What are the lessons learned?
- [Poverty and vulnerability in DRC](https://gsdrc.org/publications/poverty-and-vulnerability-in-drc/) - Identify and summarise key national and localised information in Democratic Republic of Congo, on who are the extreme poor and vulnerable, what the causes of poverty are, and how people move in and out of poverty. Include an overview of how poverty is defined, key indicators used and quality of data.
- [The impact of Area-Based Programming](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-impact-of-area-based-programming/) - What is the evidence to support the theory that area based programming will achieve greater impact in an environment such as DRC as opposed to sectoral/issue based approaches?
- [Peacebuilding support in West Africa](https://gsdrc.org/publications/peacebuilding-support-in-west-africa/) - Identify (i) key partnerships and (ii) major government and donor programmes in the area of peacebuilding in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea. Also, identify programmes and partnerships broadly linked to: food security; youth employment; mining governance; and election support.
- [‘Triggers’ to scale up assistance in advance of shocks](https://gsdrc.org/publications/triggers-to-scale-up-assistance-in-advance-of-shocks/) - Please identify the approaches that have been used to try to define the ‘triggers’ that should be used to scale up humanitarian and other forms of assistance in advance of new shocks in contexts of chronic crisis or vulnerability. Where possible, identify the theoretical underpinnings of the trigger approaches, the indicators proposed to serve as triggers, and the operational experience of such an approach.
- [Effectiveness of sector-wide approaches in fragile contexts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/effectiveness-of-sector-wide-approaches-in-fragile-contexts/) - What reviews have been undertaken assessing the effectiveness of working through a Sector Wide Approach (SWAp) in fragile contexts, specifically focusing on health and education SWAps and decentralised contexts?
- [Urbanisation and conflict in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/publications/urbanisation-and-conflict-in-pakistan/) - What are the main links between urbanisation and violence in Pakistan? What positive opportunities does urbanisation offer for conflict reduction? Provide examples of donor approaches to conflict reduction in urban environments.
- [Oil and gas revenue sharing](https://gsdrc.org/publications/oil-and-gas-revenue-sharing/) - Please identify a selection of examples of revenue sharing models in the oil or gas sector in fragile or conflict-affected states, and summarise how they operate and what factors have contributed to their success or failure.
- [Non-political drivers of violence](https://gsdrc.org/publications/non-political-drivers-of-violence/) - Please identify and summarise recent literature on non-political drivers of violence. Any insights on middle-income country fragility/conflict would be particularly useful.
- [Conflict sensitivity in education, the private sector and infrastructure development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-sensitivity-in-education-the-private-sector-and-infrastructure-development/) - What are examples of conflict sensitive approaches and practice in relation to (i.) education, (ii) the private sector, and (iii.) infrastructure development, identifying good practice where available? What are challenges to applying such approaches and practice?
- [Country Strategies on Conflict Prevention](https://gsdrc.org/publications/country-strategies-on-conflict-prevention/) - Please provide an annotated bibliography of examples of country (national and sub-national) strategies on preventing conflict and building a culture of peace.
- [Truth Commissions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/truth-commissions/) - What have the role and responsibilities of national governments been in truth commissions? (Please include descriptive and analytical information, where available).
- [Conflict Prevention and Local Engagement](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-prevention-and-local-engagement/) - Please identify key recent literature on effective conflict prevention, particularly related to engagement with local communities, politicians and analysts in the country concerned.
- [New Literature on Conflict in the DRC](https://gsdrc.org/publications/new-literature-on-conflict-in-the-drc/) - Identify new literature on the conflict in DRC since mid-2007 (including academic literature, policy analysis and reports), summarising key documents and providing an overview of key issues and emerging trends related to drivers of conflict.
- [Development Assistance and Social Capital](https://gsdrc.org/publications/development-assistance-and-social-capital/) - What evidence exists of the impact of development programmes on social capital (bonding and bridging social capital) across ethnic and tribal boundaries in Southern Sudan and Central and East Africa more widely?
- [Community Peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/publications/community-peacebuilding/) - Please provide an overview of selected community peacebuilding initiatives in South Asia and their outcomes (with particular focus on Pakistan).
- [Lessons From The Northern Ireland Peace Process](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-the-northern-ireland-peace-process/) - What lessons does the Northern Ireland peace process hold for third party mediation and peacebuilding in other contexts?
- [Early Warning Indicators of violent conflict](https://gsdrc.org/publications/early-warning-indicators-of-violent-conflict/) - Please review the literature on conflict early warning systems and produce an overview of currently-used indicators of the risk of violent conflict, including explanations of how these indicators are linked to the likelihood of conflict. In particular, please highlight short-term indicators.
- [Conflict, Violence, Security and Justice Statistics](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-violence-security-and-justice-statistics/) - Provide a table of facts and figures on the risks and effects of violent conflict and armed violence as well as some key statistics relating to security and justice.
- [Conflict and development in Sudan  Key research institutions](https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-and-development-in-sudan-key-research-institutions/) - Provide an overview of key research institutions in the UK that incorporate a focus on conflict and development issues in Sudan.
- [Transitional justice lessons for Syria](https://gsdrc.org/publications/transitional-justice-lessons-for-syria/) - Which particular lessons can be drawn from transitional justice in the Arab world and might be useful for the conflict in Syria? What is the impact of the sectarian nature of a conflict for transitional justice? What are the opportunities and limitations of an international actor and donor, such as the EU in transitional justice? Which elements of transitional justice pose a concrete risk to the post-conflict stabilization process and how can this be avoided?
- [Lessons from implementing peace agreements: what next for Colombia?](https://gsdrc.org/publications/lessons-from-implementing-peace-agreements-what-next-for-colombia/) - Conflict in Colombia has deep roots, with over 50 years of armed conflict between state and non-state armed forces, more than 220,000 people estimated dead, and five million internally displaced people (ICG, 2013). Since the 1980s, there have been many formal and informal peace negotiations between the state and the different non-state armed groups. But
- [Preventive diplomacy and conflict prevention](https://gsdrc.org/publications/preventive-diplomacy-and-conflict-prevention/) - Please identify how preventive diplomacy relates to conflict prevention, and how models for preventive diplomacy have evolved. We are also interested in how approaches to preventive diplomacy differ at the regional level. For example, how is preventive diplomacy approached in the Asia-Pacific region, as compared to other regions like Africa, the EU and South America?
- [Costs of peace processes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/costs-of-peace-processes/) - What is the available evidence on the costings of core components of peace processes and the average time commitments that have been committed for international funding of the main components?
- [Methods for monitoring and mapping online hate speech](https://gsdrc.org/publications/methods-for-monitoring-and-mapping-online-hate-speech/) - What models and methodologies exist to support online monitoring and mapping of hate speech and narratives of violence? How has monitoring hate speech been used to support programmatic activities?
- [The Hawala System](https://gsdrc.org/publications/the-hawala-system/) - Please identify literature on the Hawala system. In particular, how widely used is it? Is it predominantly used by poor people? To what extent does it link in with the idea of the ‘ummah’ (global community of Muslims)?
- [Policy Transfers and Learning](https://gsdrc.org/publications/policy-transfers-and-learning/) - Please identify the literature regarding policy learning and transfer, primarily at international level, but also at national level (particularly where the two are linked). How do such learning and transfers happen, what mechanisms exists, under what conditions does one or the other work, and which types of actors have been key to learning and transfers?
- [Research on Tribal Governance in Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/research-on-tribal-governance-in-yemen/) - Please identify literature on the role of tribal authorities in governance, conflict and development in Yemen. Please also identify academic experts, research institutions, and NGOs working in this area, including their specific research interests.
- [Water and Energy in Central Asia](https://gsdrc.org/publications/water-and-energy-in-central-asia/) - What research has been published on the political economy of trans-boundary water and energy issues in Central Asia, including Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan?
- [Political Economy of Cash Transfers](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-cash-transfers/) - What does the evidence base on the politics and political economy of cash transfer schemes tell us? What do we know about how questions of affordability have been addressed from a political perspective? What is the nature and scope of that evidence base?
- [Development Finance Institutions and Development Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/publications/development-finance-institutions-and-development-outcomes/) - Review evidence about the development impacts of development finance institutions investing public funds in private sector development. Where possible, identify outcomes by country, sector, and asset class.
- [Literature and debates around behaviour change](https://gsdrc.org/publications/literature-and-debates-around-behaviour-change/) - What are the strongest groups of literature and main debates around behaviour change?
- [PEA in the mining/extractives sector](https://gsdrc.org/publications/pea-in-the-miningextractives-sector/) - What is the relevance of political economy analysis (PEA) to mining/extractives interventions? How and why has political economy analysis (PEA) been applied in this sector? What tools or guidance are available for conducting PEA in this sector?
- [Changing Approaches to Technical Assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/changing-approaches-to-technical-assistance/) - Please provide an overview of how donors are moving away from or changing their approaches to technical assistance, and a summary of problems in the field, drawing on a selection of donors' strategies and plans for technical assistance.
- [Southern perspectives on technical cooperation](https://gsdrc.org/publications/southern-perspectives-on-technical-cooperation-2/) - Technical assistance and technical cooperation (hereafter referred to as TC) are forms of foreign aid, where expertise is provided to developing countries in the form of personnel, training, research, and associated costs. Typically, it is associated with the placing of consultants in positions where they can advise and support counterparts in developing countries. The literature
- [Arab Donorship in Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/publications/arab-donorship-in-yemen/) - Please provide resources on Arab humanitarian and development donorship in Yemen.
- [Technical Assistance for Post-disaster Recovery](https://gsdrc.org/publications/technical-assistance-for-post-disaster-recovery/) - Identify literature on the role of international technical assistance and capacity building programmes in supporting long term recovery in post-natural disaster environments including coordination with disaster relief efforts. Highlight the implications for donor programming in such contexts.
- [Performance-based Funding](https://gsdrc.org/publications/performance-based-funding/) - What is the international experience of using performance based funding in development (focusing on donor-to-country disbursement mechanisms)?
- [Role of Aid in the Occupied Palestinian Territories](https://gsdrc.org/publications/role-of-aid-in-the-occupied-palestinian-territories/) - What is the role of aid in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, and what are donors currently doing?
- [Engaging Private Sector Actors in Delivering Development](https://gsdrc.org/publications/engaging-private-sector-actors-in-delivering-development/) - Please identify best practice, advantages /disadvantages and lessons learned from the different approaches bilateral (and multilateral if necessary) donors use to engage private sector actors in delivering development. Approaches we are particularly interested in include; enterprise challenge funds, Markets for the Poor (M4P) and the M-PESA program in Kenya.
- [Political Economy of Saudi Arabia’s Overseas Aid Assistance](https://gsdrc.org/publications/political-economy-of-saudi-arabias-overseas-aid-assistance/) - Provide information on the political economy of Saudi Arabia's overseas aid assistance - both through formal and informal routes to the MENA region and also to fragile contexts such as Sudan, Somalia, Afghanistan and Pakistan. It would be useful to understand more about the motivations and systems for delivery of this aid and what the varied objectives are (political, religious, altruistic, etc.)
- [New thinking on technical assistance to resolve knowledge and capacity gaps](https://gsdrc.org/publications/new-thinking-on-technical-assistance-to-resolve-knowledge-and-capacity-gaps/) - Identify emerging thinking on how best to use technical assistance (TA) to resolve knowledge and capacity gaps in both donor organisations and governments in LMICs. Where possible identify: development outcomes, potential negative implications, key thinkers, appropriateness, effectiveness, lessons learned and case studies. In particular, try and identify cases studies looking beyond 'filling gaps' to developing knowledge and capacity in the longer term, and also at using TA to help develop, procure and manage advisory services.
- [Ground rules for military conduct](https://gsdrc.org/publications/ground-rules-for-military-conduct/) - Query: ICRC (and/or other organisations, in one instance at least ICRC+NGOs) development of ground rules for military conduct n recent conflicts. 1) Grateful for the list of principles that they have asked parties to the conflict to sign up to, and the process used to get parties to sign. 2) Is there any evidence that signing up to these principles by state and non-state actors in recent conflicts has delivered any improvement in the treatment of combatants and non-combatants? Purpose: drawing up ground rules for military conduct for parties to the Syria conflict.
- [Experience of Compacts](https://gsdrc.org/publications/experience-of-compacts/) - Please identify literature on good or bad practice on 'compacts'. Please aim to highlight any information or experiences of compacts at both the political and budgetary level and the merits of any benchmarks of compacts that may have been used or attempted. Any assessments or experience of compacts, successful or otherwise, in fragile or post-conflict environments would be particularly beneficial. Without limiting the scope of the work, one example that should be looked at is the International Compact with Iraq.
- [Mapping breastfeeding programmes in low and middle-income countries](https://gsdrc.org/publications/mapping-breastfeeding-programmes-in-low-and-middle-income-countries/) - Please provide a summary of breastfeeding programmes implemented in low and middle-income countries over the last 10years.
- [Formal justice in Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/publications/formal-justice-in-iraq/) - What research has been conducted on the provision of formal justice in Iraq and in particular how pre and post- trial detention is managed? Are there any notable examples of where the Government of Iraq has a particularly good or less than satisfactory record on fulfilling international treaty obligations on rights for instance?
- [Approaches to better target audiences](https://gsdrc.org/publications/approaches-to-better-target-audiences/) - Please identify approaches used in marketing (both commercial and also social) and across the wider behavioural sciences to understand, segment and better target audiences beyond the usual social, economic and demographic categories typically used? Where possible, identify the theories of behavioural change which inform these approaches.
- [Money Laundering and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/publications/money-laundering-and-poverty-reduction/) - What links, if any, are there between tackling organised crime and corruption through money laundering and the impact upon poverty reduction?
- [Evaluations of Donors’ Peace-building and Conflict Policies](https://gsdrc.org/publications/evaluations-of-donors-peace-building-and-conflict-policies/) - Please identify reviews or evaluations of donors' peace-building or peace and conflict policies and, where possible, highlight: - The evaluation methodology - Findings of how the policy contributed to policy coherence, particularly in regard to defence, diplomacy and development - Any identified sets of 'principles for engagement' - Discussion of gender - Key lessons learned

## Document Library

- [Development Donors and the Concept of Security Sector Reform](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/development-donors-and-the-concept-of-security-sector-reform/) - What are the strengths and weaknesses of developmental approaches to security sector reform (SSR)? How is the concept of SSR changing, and how might it be developed to enable better implementation? This paper from the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces traces the origins of the SSR debate and surveys the opportunities
- [Macroeconomic Policy Considerations in Post-Conflict Recovery](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/macroeconomic-policy-considerations-in-post-conflict-recovery/) - How can post-conflict macroeconomic planning prevent conflict relapse and support recovery? This section from the 2008 UNDP Crisis Prevention Report investigates how to craft post-conflict macroeconomic policy as part of an effective post-conflict recovery and reconstruction process. Data available from post-conflict countries since 1989 reveals that macroeconomic recovery measures can decrease the chance of conflict
- [Vulnerability](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/vulnerability/) - What is the present state of vulnerability research and how does it link with the fields of climate change adaptation and resilience? This paper reviews the research traditions of vulnerability to environmental change and the challenges for present vulnerability research in integrating with the domains of resilience and adaptation. It demonstrates that the fields of
- [Managing change in PFM system reforms: A guide for practitioners](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/managing-change-in-pfm-system-reforms-a-guide-for-practitioners/) - This guidance note presents the key components of change management programs, together with several country cases, in order to assist practitioners in the design of change management and adaptive leadership programs as an integral part of country specific PFM system reform projects. Key findings: Key challenges for mobilising a large group of individuals (reform teams) to
- [Helping Parliaments and Legislative Assemblies to Work for the Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/helping-parliaments-and-legislative-assemblies-to-work-for-the-poor/) - How can legislatures and parliaments be better at helping development and poverty reduction? How can they improve the way they perform their key constitutional roles? These guidelines from the Department for International Development are part of an international effort to address these issues. The roles of Parliament and legislatures vary from place to place, depending
- [An Independent Judiciary: The Core of the Rule of Law](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/an-independent-judiciary-the-core-of-the-rule-of-law/) - The key to fostering and establishing the ‘rule of law’ is to ensure that the judiciary is not only independent but appears to be independent, in order to gain the confidence of the public. The greatest danger to independence comes from the interference of—perceived or otherwise—government institutions or political parties. This paper from the International
- [The Challenges of Poverty and Social Welfare in the Caribbean](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-challenges-of-poverty-and-social-welfare-in-the-caribbean/) - Caribbean countries have grappled with poverty and related problems for decades. So have anti-poverty strategies and welfare programmes worked? What should be done now? This article from the International Journal of Social Welfare presents an overview of persistent problems and outlines proposals for social development. No single approach applies to all Caribbean countries. NGOs, community
- [The Origins of the Intelligence System of Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-origins-of-the-intelligence-system-of-kenya/) - How did Kenya's intelligence service emerge? What challenges does it face? After the colonial government established a 'Special Branch' in the police force to gather intelligence on political matters, Kenya's intelligence service developed a reputation for oppression. It was only when the National Security Intelligence Service Act was passed in 1998 that it began to
- [Pro-poor Growth: A Review of What we Know (and of what we don't)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/pro-poor-growth-a-review-of-what-we-know-and-of-what-we-dont/) - Pro-poor growth is increasingly popular among development practitioners, but the concept itself remains ambiguous. Does pro-poor growth lead to income redistribution or does it aim towards poverty reduction? What is the relationship between growth, distribution, inequality and poverty reduction? This paper, published by the World Bank, highlights the general level of consensus among donors on
- [Civil Society Actors in Defence and Security Affairs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/civil-society-actors-in-defence-and-security-affairs/) - While donors and the academic community are paying increased attention to civil society, few studies examine security sector reform (SSR) and governance from a civil society perspective. This paper by Marina Caparini and Philipp Fluri is the first chapter of a book that explores the nexus between civil society and the security sector. Using conceptual
- [Indigenous Institutions, Traditional Leaders and Elite Coalitions for Development: The case of Greater Durban, South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/indigenous-institutions-traditional-leaders-and-elite-coalitions-for-development-the-case-of-greater-durban-south-africa/) - What factors facilitate inclusive political settlements and developmental coalitions within a hybrid political order? This study, building on earlier work undertaken for the Crisis States Research Centre, further developed for the Leadership, Elites and Coalitions Research Programme (LECRP) and also published by the Crisis States Research Centre, suggests that in South Africa, state-making and peace-building
- [Private Actors and Security Governance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/private-actors-and-security-governance/) - While security has been traditionally understood as an exclusive function of the state, private and other non-state actors are assuming an increasingly central role in the provision of security. This book, published by the Geneva Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces, discusses security privatisation and its implications for security governance. Both international and national
- [National Dialogue in Sudan: Past Experiences and Current Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/national-dialogue-in-sudan-past-experiences-and-current-challenges/) - Since independence, Sudan has undergone a number of national peace agreements, some of which were observed and honoured for short periods. The net result of broken agreements has driven the country into deep conflict, leading to the secession of South Sudan in 2011, and creating a crisis which still threatens the country with further violence
- [Regaining a future? Lessons learned from education of young people in fragile situations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/regaining-a-future-lessons-learned-from-education-of-young-people-in-fragile-situations/) - This report examines experiences in providing educational aid to young people in fragile situations. The study analyses experiences with three different, yet overlapping forms of education supported by a variety of multilateral and bilateral donors and agencies, as well as NGOs: secondary schooling, accelerated learning/second chance education, and vocational/technical skills education. The research has been
- [Gender and Climate Change: Overview Report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-and-climate-change-overview-report/) - This report argues that gender transformation is both an important condition and a potential end goal of effective climate change responses and poverty reduction. It highlights the need to put people at the centre of climate change responses, and to pay particular attention to the challenges and opportunities that climate change presents in the struggle
- [Fragile States on the International Agenda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fragile-states-on-the-international-agenda/) - What are the main arguments that make up the debate about fragile states? This research from the Danish Institute for International Studies suggests that the fragile states debate is essentially about politics. Focusing on the security-development nexus and on statebuilding, it shows how the debate concerns principles that are fundamental to the way we perceive
- [The Rule-of-Law Mission in Georgia (EUJUST Themis)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-rule-of-law-mission-in-georgia-eujust-themis/) - How successful was the European Union’s 2004-2005 Rule of Law mission in Georgia? This chapter analyses the experience of the first rule-of-law mission undertaken under the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP). EUJUST Themis aimed to assist the government to develop an overarching criminal justice reform strategy based on local ownership. The mission was a
- [States in Development: Understanding State-building](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/states-in-development-understanding-state-building/) - Why do some states manage state-building better than others? How can development actors support positive state-building? This paper from the UK Department for International Development's Governance and Social Development Group examines factors leading to positive or negative state development. International actors should consider underlying realities, and put social, economic and political analysis into a historical
- [The challenge of creating inclusive cities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/challenge-creating-inclusive-cities/) - Cities across the globe are becoming increasingly unequal; poor design coupled with overcrowding has resulted in an increasing number of people pushed out to living in slums and environmentally-degraded neighbourhoods. The paper argues that as economic growth does not always translate to the common good, cities need to be inclusive in order to build social
- [Capturing Change in Women's Realities: A Critical Overview of Current Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/capturing-change-in-womens-realities-a-critical-overview-of-current-monitoring-and-evaluation-frameworks/) - This study analyses current assumptions about monitoring and evaluation (M&E) in the context of women's rights, gender equality and women's empowerment work. It assesses M&E tools and argues that donors and agencies need to work more closely with constituencies in building M&E systems to find creative ways of tracking the effects of interventions in the
- [Applying Conflict Sensitivity at Project and Programme Level](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/applying-conflict-sensitivity-at-project-and-programme-level/) - How does designing and implementing projects and programmes in areas of existing or threatened conflict differ from more straightforward development contexts? This chapter of a manual by a consortium of six organisations including International Alert provides tools for incorporating conflict-sensitivity into project and programme planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). Where aid is delivered in
- [Democratizing the Police Abroad](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/democratizing-the-police-abroad/) - This study is concerned with the accountability of police to the citizens in their country, and the degree to which the police focus on providing assistance to those citizens. It outlines a series of 87 lessons, based on a synthesis of more than 500 books, articles and documents by observers and practitioners (a bibliography of
- [Ghana: Justice Sector and the Rule of Law](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ghana-justice-sector-and-the-rule-of-law/) - What are the key challenges for justice sector reform in Ghana? This paper from the Africa Governance, Monitoring and Advocacy Project (AfriMAP) highlights both improvements and issues yet to be addressed in the country’s administration of law and justice. Whilst it has seen many positive developments since the restoration of civilian rule in 1993, including an
- [Ethnicity, Religion and the State in Ghana and Nigeria: Perceptions from the Street](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ethnicity-religion-and-the-state-in-ghana-and-nigeria-perceptions-from-the-street/) - What can social surveys tell us about perceptions of ethnicity, religion and the state in Ghana and Nigeria? This working paper from the Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity (CRISE) analyses survey data on how people see their own identities and their perceptions of the domination of state institutions by particular ethnic or
- [Ghana and the APRM: A Critical Assessment](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ghana-and-the-aprm-a-critical-assessment/) - What lessons can be learnt from Ghana’s experience of the Africa Peer Review Mechanism (APRM)? This report from the Open Society Initiative for West Africa (OSIWA) evaluates Ghana’s country self-assessment process, with a focus on participation and inclusiveness. Although the APRM self-assessment process in Ghana is considered to be a model for others, participation could
- [Developing Multi-Party Politics: Stability and Change in Ghana and Mozambique](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/developing-multi-party-politics-stability-and-change-in-ghana-and-mozambique/) - African politics are often characterised by the cult of individual personalities and Mozambique and Ghana are not exceptions to this. However, successful democratisation needs to transcend individuals. How far do the party systems of Mozambique and Ghana contribute to the evolution of democratic development? This research paper, by the Development Research Centre based at the
- [Differences in the Performance of Public Organisations in Ghana: Implications for Public-Sector Reform Policy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/differences-in-the-performance-of-public-organisations-in-ghana-implications-for-public-sector-reform-policy/) - What is the best way to achieve efficiency and high performance in the African public sector? Is it possible to pinpoint and reverse the causes of poor performance? This Overseas Development Institute paper examines the characteristics of public organisations in Ghana. It states that poor and well performing public organisations in Ghana differ in two
- [Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector: Lessons from Ghana](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/parliamentary-oversight-of-the-security-sector-lessons-from-ghana/) - Does Ghana’s Parliament have the necessary powers, capacity and political will to provide effective oversight of the security sector? What role can civil society organisations and regional cooperation and security architecture play in relation to parliamentary oversight of the security sector? This paper from the Centre on International Cooperation examines the functionality and effectiveness of
- [Ghana: Democracy and Political Participation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ghana-democracy-and-political-participation/) - What are the key challenges to the promotion of democracy and political participation in Ghana? This paper from the Africa Governance, Monitoring and Advocacy Project (AfriMAP) reviews the status of institutional reforms and the role of the media, civil society and citizens in the country’s movement towards full democracy. While much progress has been made
- [On Public Organizations in Ghana: What Differentiates Good Performers from Poor Performers?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/on-public-organizations-in-ghana-what-differentiates-good-performers-from-poor-performers/) - Are there significant differences in the characteristics of poor and good performing public organisations? What are the implications for public sector reform policy in Africa? This paper from the Department of Community and Regional Planning at Iowa State Universityuses Ghana as a case study to provide guidance to policymakers on ways of creating effective and
- [Local Government in Post-Conflict Environments](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/local-government-in-post-conflict-environments/) - What role does local government (LG) play in post-conflict reconstruction? What are the key issues for LG in post-conflict contexts? This paper, published by the United Nations Development Programme, argues that further research is required on the role of LG in conflict prevention, particularly on the contextual factors that enable LG to mitigate conflict. Donors
- [Time to Listen: Hearing People on the Receiving End of International Aid](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/time-to-listen-hearing-people-on-the-receiving-end-of-international-aid/) - This study represents the cumulative evidence of five years gathering evidence from people living in societies that are recipients of international aid. CDA's Listening Project organised teams of 'listeners' across 20 countries and contexts to gather the voices, insights, and lessons from people both inside and outside the aid system. The Listening Project held conversations
- [Peacebuilding and Statebuilding - Priorities and Challenges: A Synthesis of Findings from Seven Multi-Stakeholder Consultations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/peacebuilding-and-statebuilding-priorities-and-challenges-a-synthesis-of-findings-from-seven-multi-stakeholder-consultations/) - What are the current priorities and challenges for peacebuilding and statebuilding? This report synthesises the findings of seven multi-stakeholder consultations designed to identify key priorities, bottlenecks and good practices in national and international support for peacebuilding and statebuilding. The consultations found that stronger and more coherent national and international engagement is needed to support peacebuilding
- [Planning and Evaluating Development and Humanitarian Interventions in Conflict Zones](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/planning-and-evaluating-development-and-humanitarian-interventions-in-conflict-zones/) - What is the best way to introduce peace and conflict sensitivity to development and humanitarian programmes? This study from the Center for Peace Research and Strategic Studies provides a guide to planning development and humanitarian interventions in conflict zones. It suggests that while peace and conflict sensitivity has been successfully mainstreamed as a topic of
- [A Theory of Change: A thinking and action approach to navigate in the complexity of social change processes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-theory-of-change-a-thinking-and-action-approach-to-navigate-in-the-complexity-of-social-change-processes/) - What is a Theory of Change (ToC) and why is it important? This guide to understanding and developing a ToC shows how a ToC helps to configure the conditions needed to achieve desired change, using the experience of a given context. This is done partly by making assumptions explicit and by analysing them critically. It
- [Evidence synthesis: Security sector reform and organisational capacity building](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/evidence-synthesis-security-sector-reform-and-organisational-capacity-building/) - This synthesis examines the extent to which capacity building interventions in security sector reform have led to improved outcomes in accountability, responsiveness and capacity to deliver among security institutions and agencies in low- and middle-income countries. It further explores the factors enabling or hindering these improvements and the relationship between organisational capacity building interventions and the longer-term
- ["Working to improve our own future": Inclusion of women and girls with disabilities in humanitarian action](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/working-improve-future-inclusion-women-girls-disabilities-humanitarian-action/) - While humanitarian organisations are increasingly recognising people with disabilities, women and girls with disabilities are often under-represented in gender, protection and disability forums. This report documents positive practices, gaps and opportunities for the inclusion of women and girls with disabilities in humanitarian programming, as well the role of women's DPOs in humanitarian response. It finds that
- [Disasters, conflict and fragility: A joint agenda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disasters-conflict-fragility-joint-agenda/) - How can the international community better understand the multi-dimensional nature of risk and crises? How can international partners integrate the implications of this analysis for their own strategies and approaches? How can strategic partnerships be strengthened in future engagements in fragile and conflict-affected countries? This paper provides an analysis on current thinking about the intersections
- [The political economy of cash transfers: A comparative analysis of Latin American and Sub-Saharan African experiences](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-political-economy-of-cash-transfers-a-comparative-analysis-of-latin-american-and-sub-saharan-african-experiences/) - Conditional cash transfer (CCTs) programmes became popular throughout Latin America during the 1990s and have since been launched in several other emerging and developing countries, generally without conditions. This paper compares the consolidated experience of CCTs in Latin America (LA) with a variety of models of cash transfers (CTs) in middle- and low- income countries in
- [Exit as entry in antipoverty programmes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/exit-as-entry-in-antipoverty-programmes/) - When conditional cash transfer programmes (CCTs) use entry conditions to establish exit criteria, is this consistent with their protection and promotion objectives? This paper explores why this practice it not supported analytically, nor empirically - through an analysis of outcomes for families excluded from Colombia's Familias en Accion. It finds that this practice can be associated
- [State of the world’s minorities and indigenous peoples 2016](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-of-the-worlds-minorities-and-indigenous-peoples-2016/) - While economics and politics often dominate discussions about minority and indigenous communities’ rights, culture is no less important. A right to culture is central to the enjoyment of a range of rights, from education and health to language and livelihoods. However, even in contexts where cultural rights are well established, they rely on a constant
- [Voices of refugees: Information and communication needs of refugees in Greece and Germany](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/voices-refugees-information-communication-needs-refugees-greece-germany/) - How do refugees access and use information? The millions of people using unofficial migration routes to reach northern European countries often cannot get the reliable information they need to make decisions and survive. This report examines the communication behaviours and priority information needs of refugees. It finds that a lack of online or mobile connectivity
- [The implications of land issues for climate resilient informal settlements in Fiji and Papua New Guinea.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-implications-of-land-issues-for-climate-resilient-informal-settlements-in-fiji-and-papua-new-guinea/) - Future climate change is considered to be one of the most pressing challenges for Pacific Island Countries (PICs) given their already high levels of exposure to natural hazards, limited response capacity and significant geographical challenges. While resettlement of hazard-prone people is a potential option, land disputes are frequent in the PICs and the findings in
- [What is the case for a security and justice focus in development assistance programming?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/case-security-justice-focus-development-assistance-programming/) - Why should DFID and other development agencies see security and justice as core business? This review finds a growing body of empirical evidence to support the argument that shortfalls in security and justice are central to poverty, underdevelopment and limit the ability to meet the MDGs. It highlights how the question of the ways in
- [Managing Contradictions: The Inherent Dilemmas of Postwar Statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/managing-contradictions-inherent-dilemmas-postwar-statebuilding/) - How can legitimate, effective institutions best be built to help create peaceful states? This paper from the Research Partnership on Postwar Statebuilding suggests that statebuilding has become a central focus of multidimensional peace operations in war-torn societies. Efforts to construct legitimate, effective state institutions are full of tensions and contradictions. Understanding these tensions and contradictions
- [Introduction: At War's End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/introduction-at-wars-end-building-peace-after-civil-conflict/) - What is the relationship between liberalisation, institution building and peace in countries that are just emerging from civil conflict? Roland Paris' book examines postconflict operations between 1989 and 1999. This introductory chapter outlines the author's argument that while peacebuilders should preserve the broad goal of converting war-shattered states into liberal market democracies, peacebuilding strategies need
- [Aid That Works: Successful Development in Fragile States - Synthesizing Case Study Findings](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/aid-that-works-successful-development-in-fragile-states-synthesizing-case-study-findings/) - How can development agencies work with weak governments in fragile states? This introductory chapter from the book ‘Aid That Works: Successful Development in Fragile States’ looks at the design, implementation and governance outcomes of development initiatives in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Despite numerous challenges, much can be achieved through a consultative approach linked with democratic
- [Aid Reform: Addressing Conflict and Situations of Fragility](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/aid-reform-addressing-conflict-and-situations-of-fragility/) - Violent conflict and ‘situations of fragility’ represent significant challenges for aid effectiveness. This CARE International briefing paper argues that applying traditional development approaches in an unchanged fashion in such contexts simply does not work. Aid can have unintended interactions with conflict – both to exacerbate or mitigate violence or the potential for violence. Aid reforms need to
- [International Compacts: Sovereignty Strategies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/international-compacts-sovereignty-strategies/) - This chapter from the book 'Fixing Failed States' argues that a stable world requires functioning states in order to overcome challenges to the political and economic system. Domestic and global leadership must find a new approach to transform states so that they provide security and prosperity for their citizens and also act as responsible members
- [The making of a riskier future: How our decisions are shaping future disaster risk](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-riskier-future-decisions-shaping-future-disaster-risk/) - Disaster risks are rapidly increasing around the world. Most disaster risk assessments are focused on current risks, rather than drivers of risks or their dynamics. Drivers are in the control of policymakers, society and individuals but accurate assessment and continuous re-evaluation of risk are required to enable effective risk reduction and prevent drastic increases in
- [The Illusions of Civil Society](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-illusions-of-civil-society/) - Current thinking on the post-colonial state in Africa stresses the need to cut back or bypass the state, which is seen as inefficient and predatory. Can civil society perform the role of reforming the political realm that is currently expected of it? This chapter from the book 'Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument', argues that
- [Fragile States, Fractured Societies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fragile-states-fractured-societies/) - What has caused the difficulties experienced by fragile states? This book chapter from Praeger Security International explores the roots of state fragility and the role of foreign aid in sustaining past dysfunction. Two structural problems – political identity fragmentation (often based on arbitrarily drawn state borders) and weak national institutions – reinforce each other. They
- [Avoiding the Fragility Trap in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/avoiding-the-fragility-trap-in-africa/) - Why do some countries remain fragile states? How can they get out of what is known as 'the fragility trap'? The study suggests that three features – political instability and violence, insecure property rights and unenforceable contracts, and corruption – conspire to create a slow-growth-poor-governance equilibrium. It argues that, even if aid is seemingly unproductive
- [The Distinctive Political Logic of Weak States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-distinctive-political-logic-of-weak-states/) - Why is warlord politics so prevalent in Africa? Why do African rulers persistently give only lip-service to good governance, and weaken the organs of government? This first chapter of a book on warlord politics in Africa examines the political logic of weak states. Donor attempts to build strong African states fail because rulers' power rests
- [Introduction: Posing the Problem of State Collapse](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/introduction-posing-the-problem-of-state-collapse/) - How do states collapse? What separates state collapse from conflicts and changes that occur without the state being destroyed? How can state collapse be forseen and prevented? This chapter from the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins University analyses examples of state collapse in African countries and summarises the lessons which can
- [Local Defence in Afghanistan: A Review of Government-backed Initiatives](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/local-defence-in-afghanistan-a-review-of-government-backed-initiatives/) - Have government-backed initiatives supporting informal armed groups improved security in Afghanistan? This report analyses the Afghanistan National Auxiliary Police (ANAP), the Afghan Public Protection Programme (AP3), and the Local Defence Initiative (LDI). These entail support to informal armed groups to provide security, particularly in areas where the Taleban is gaining ground. However, lessons from the earlier
- [A manifesto for the fragile city](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-manifesto-for-the-fragile-city/) - The city is at the centre of global geopolitical, economic and demographic transformation. However, fragility is no longer confined to nation states, with insecure, disorganised and violent urban areas potentially giving rise to national unrest, civil conflict and urban insurgency. This article considers the form and character of the fragile city, and four key risks influencing
- [Witness to Climate Change: Learning from Older People’s Experience](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/witness-to-climate-change-learning-from-older-peoples-experience/) - This paper is based on research with older men and women from Bangladesh, Bolivia, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. It looks at older people's experience and awareness of climate change, and calls for better inclusion of their views in developing adaptive strategies. Older people are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate
- [Climate change, conflict and children](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-change-conflict-and-children/) - This paper reviews the evidence linking climate variability to conflict, and the subsequent short and long-term implications of children’s exposure to conflict. Evidence generally supports strong links between hotter temperatures, reduced rainfall and more conflict. Individuals exposed to conflicts while in utero or during early childhood suffer negative health and education effects in the short-term.
- [Liberation technology: Mobile phones and political mobilization in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/liberation-technology-mobile-phones-and-political-mobilization-in-africa/) - The recent spread of digital information and communication technology has fed a wave of optimism about its use as a ‘liberation technology’ for the oppressed and disenfranchised worldwide. According to this argument, mobile phones and the Internet have the potential to foster citizens’ political activism and even lead to mass political mobilization, especially when civic forms
- [Violent extremism in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/violent-extremism-africa/) - This paper analyses data from three regional “hotspots” of violent extremism in sub-Saharan Africa: Boko Haram in the Lake Chad region; Ansar Dine, al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), and al Mourabitoun (among others) in the Sahel; and Al Shabaab in the Horn of Africa. It suggests that security-related issues are a priority for citizens of
- [Justice mechanisms and conflict dynamics in Nepal: Local perceptions and impacts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/justice-mechanisms-and-conflict-dynamics-in-nepal-local-perceptions-and-impacts/) - Nepal is an ethnically and geographically diverse nation, where people rely on a wide range of formal and informal justice systems to resolve their disputes. This report explores community-level perceptions of these mechanisms, the current situation of access to justice among different community/ethnic groups, and the linkage between access to justice issues and local conflict dynamics. It
- [Cash-based approaches in humanitarian emergencies: A systematic review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-based-approaches-in-humanitarian-emergencies-a-systematic-review/) - The primary objective of this review was to assess and synthesize existing evidence on the effects of cash-based approaches on individual and household outcomes in humanitarian emergencies. The secondary objective was to assess the efficiency of different cash-based approaches and identify factors that hinder and facilitate programme implementation. The paper reviewed: experimental and quasi-experimental studies to
- [Making politics work for development: Harnessing transparency and citizen engagement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-politics-work-for-development/) - The majority of development work is done in imperfect governance environments where things need to be done - and quickly. This report looks at making politics work for development, rather than against it, to address government failures. It discusses trends and the context of government failures, political engagement and transparency, and finds that citizen political engagement and
- [Women's empowerment: What works?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/womens-empowerment-works/) - Empowerment is one of the most elastic development buzzwords: emerging as a call for transformative social action aimed at confronting inequalities, to a contemporary mainstream development concern more focused on provision of resources, assets or services. This paper argues that only through the former can empowerment work challenge the power relations that underpin pervasive gender inequalities. It also
- [Citizens' perceptions of urban public services](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/citizens-perceptions-urban-public-services/) - This research report summarises how urban citizens in Pakistan rate and perceive six public services: water, sewerage, public hospitals, public transport, and law and order sectors. It explores access, quality and reliability of service provision; problems encountered; and responsiveness of service providers in addressing these problems. The information gathered in this report may be useful for service
- [Stability and instability in the Gulf region in 2016: A strategic net assessment](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/stability-instability-gulf-region-2016-strategic-net-assessment/) - The Gulf region is a complex and constantly evolving region that involves very different levels of uncertainty and risk. This net assessment attempts to address the underlying problems and pressures shaping the risks in the region and each Gulf country using official data and data from key international institutions like the UN, World Bank and
- [The echo chamber: Results, management and the humanitarian effectiveness agenda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-echo-chamber/) - This critical analysis of the bureaucratisation and professionalisation of humanitarian action proposes that, in spite of bringing order and focus to efforts to improve humanitarian action, the development of the effectiveness agenda has reinforced an echo chamber within the humanitarian sector that is depoliticising humanitarian agencies, distancing them from the humanitarian imperative and the people
- [Strengthening civil society? Reflections on international engagement in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strengthening-civil-society-reflections-on-international-engagement-in-fragile-states/) - This discussion paper is derived from a study by the European Centre for Development Policy Management on the importance of civil society in fragile states. It aims to answer the following questions: What are the characteristics of fragile states and civil society in fragile states, and what particular challenges does this pose for engaging with
- [The impact of PFM interventions on corruption](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/impact-pfm-interventions-corruption/) - This paper explores the linkages between PFM systems and effective anti-corruption measures. It asks: Which components of the PFM cycle are effective anti-corruption measures and what types of corruption do they address? Drawing on a variable evidence base, its findings highlight the role of PFM reforms in reducing the opportunities and incentives for corruption, over
- [Religion, women's health and rights: Points of contention and paths of opportunities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/religion-womens-health-and-rights-points-of-contention-and-paths-of-opportunities/) - This document reviews and highlights some of the diverse narratives, teachings and experiences linking religious discourses to sexual and reproductive health (SRH) and reproductive rights (RR). Taking culture and religion into consideration when designing and implementing public health policy and programmes is essential; cultural traditions and religious beliefs and practices are linked to sexual and reproductive
- [Strengthening urban resilience in African cities: Understanding and addressing urban risk](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strengthening-urban-resilience-in-african-cities-understanding-and-addressing-urban-risk/) - As part of its programme on strengthening urban resilience in African cities, ActionAid commissioned research to better understand the risks faced by urban poor people on the African continent. This exploratory research comprised a desktop review of the literature on urban risk in Africa, and fieldwork in three cities in Senegal, The Gambia and Zimbabwe.
- [Essays on humanitarian effectiveness](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/essays-on-humanitarian-effectiveness/) - The five essays that form this collection are the result of extensive desk and field research carried out in nine countries: Bangladesh, India, Nepal; Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey; Liberia; Niger; and the Philippines. The essays are part of a project by Save The Children’s Humanitarian Affairs Team, in partnership with the Humanitarian and Conflict Response Institute
- [Looking forward: broader messages, policy lessons and directions for future research](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/looking-forward-broader-messages-policy-lessons-and-directions-for-future-research/) - Taxation, responsiveness and accountability provides the most complete treatment of the connections between taxation and accountability in developing countries. Drawing on cross-country econometric evidence and detailed case studies from Ghana, Kenya and Ethiopia, the book shows that reliance on taxation has, in fact, increased responsiveness and accountability by expanding the political power wielded by taxpayers.
- [Mapping the Security Development Nexus: Conflict, Complexity, Cacophony, Convergence?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mapping-the-security-development-nexus-conflict-complexity-cacophony-convergence/) - Attention to the security-development nexus has become commonplace in policymaking. But how has this concept been interpreted and used? This article suggests a framework for mapping the security-development nexus. The 'nexus' is being used to describe a growing realm, but there is still confusion and ideological division over its meaning. The unclear content and form
- [Does participation strengthen civil society?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/does-participation-strengthen-civil-society/) - Can projects that attempt to induce participation and build “social capital” help repair civil society failures? The evidence on this important question is weak for several reasons, including attribution. Projects tend to have very limited impact on building social cohesion or rebuilding the state, as they tend to exclude the poor and be elite-dominated. However, there
- [World Cities Report 2016](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/world-cities-report-2016/) - In an increasingly urbanised world where urban populations and the challenges of urban areas continue to grow, longstanding models of urbanisation need to adapt to new social, economic and environmental realities. The World Cities Report 2016 explores persistent issues and emerging trends in urbanisation, highlighting the much-needed role of good urban governance to harness the positive
- [Making women count - not just counting women: Assessing women’s inclusion and influence on peace negotiations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-women-count-not-just-counting-women-assessing-womens-inclusion-and-influence-on-peace-negotiations/) - This report presents an analysis of women’s inclusion in peace negotiations distilled from the ‘Broadening Participation in Political Negotiations and Implementation’ project. This is an ongoing multi-year research project started in 2011 at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland, to address the lack of evidence-based knowledge on the precise role
- [Shock-responsive social protection systems research: Literature review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/shock-responsive-social-protection-systems-research-literature-review/) - What is the relationship between social protection, humanitarian and disaster risk management systems? This literature review consolidates current thinking and emerging evidence on this topic, including ways in which long-term social protection systems can be scaled up to provide support in humanitarian emergencies. The authors reviewed over 400 papers including peer-reviewed journal papers and open-access documents issued
- [Health Systems Strengthening in Fragile Contexts: A Report on Good Practices and New Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/health-systems-strengthening-in-fragile-contexts-a-report-on-good-practices-and-new-approaches/) - What are the best approaches to strengthening health systems in fragile states? This report from the Health and Fragile States Network surveys current health strategies in an attempt to test the feasibility of health system strengthening in fragile contexts and to shed light on emerging ‘good practices’ and challenges for health issues in these environments.
- [In their words: perceptions of armed non-state actors on humanitarian action](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/in-their-words-perceptions-of-armed-non-state-actors-on-humanitarian-action/) - What do armed non-state actors (ANSAs) think of humanitarian action? This paper finds that while they are willing to engage positively with humanitarian actors, they feel left out of the processes which determine humanitarian principles and international law. Understanding of rules around humantarian access is relatively limited and needs to be addressed. It calls for a more
- [When less is more: external assistance and the political settlement in Somaliland](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/when-less-is-more-external-assistance-and-the-political-settlement-in-somaliland/) - This article uses a political settlement framework to explore the configuration of power that underpinned the establishment and maintenance of peace in Somaliland. It explores the ways in which the country's isolation fostered mutual dependence between powerful political and economic actors for their survival and prosperity, and challenges underlying assumptions of western statebuilding and post-conflict transition models.
- [Iraq’s displacement crisis: security and protection](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/iraqs-displacement-crisis-security-and-protection/) - The humanitarian emergency in Iraq has become more severe over the past two years as the armed conflict continues: statistics suggest there are 3.2 million IDPs in the country and more than 8 million people in need of humanitarian assistance. This report provides an up-to-date overview of the human rights situation of IDPs in Iraq since
- [Peacebuilding knowledge, attitudes and skills: Desk review and recommendations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/peacebuilding-knowledge-attitudes-and-skills-desk-review-and-recommendations/) - Children and adolescents can build peace. They can draw from their life experiences, natural resiliency, capacities, talents and personal, familial and cultural assets to embrace peace and introduce peaceful behaviours to their community. This report attempts to empower and equip children to assume a peacebuilding role in their schools, communities, and countries by teaching key
- [Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/managing-the-risks-of-extreme-events-and-disasters-to-advance-climate-change-adaptation/) - This special report brings together scientific communities with expertise in three very different aspects of managing risks of extreme weather and climate events. For this report, specialists in disaster recovery, disaster risk management, and disaster risk reduction, a community mostly new to the IPCC, joined forces with experts in the areas of the physical science
- [Adolescent boys and young men](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/adolescent-boys-and-young-men-engaging-them-as-supporters-of-gender-equality-and-health-and-understanding-their-vulnerabilities/) - While there has been an increased focus on engaging adolescent boys and young men in Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) and gender equality, and an increased recognition in the mutual benefit this brings, it is often still not a priority. This paper argues that the need for this engagement and the importance of
- [Tax administrations and capacity building: A collective challenge](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/tax-administrations-and-capacity-building-a-collective-challenge/) - Tax cooperation has now reached unprecedented levels. Much work has been and is being done to assist developing countries in building their tax capacity. In February 2016 the the IMF, OECD, UN and World Bank proposed to the G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors that they develop a joint tax platform and recommend mechanisms
- [A man’s world? Exploring the roles of women in countering terrorism and violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mans-world-exploring-the-roles-of-women-in-counter-terrorism-and-violent-extremism/) - This edited volume provides an innovative set of national, regional, and international perspectives reflecting on the roles of women in terrorism and countering violent extremism (CVE). Contributors reflect on the lessons learned from diverse fields of practice, including development, human rights, media and advocacy, academia, and conflict prevention and mitigation, and consider their application to
- [Security Sector Evolution: Understanding and Influencing How Security Institutions Change](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/security-sector-evolution-understanding-and-influencing-how-security-institutions-change/) - What implications do different theoretical approaches to institutional change have for security sector reform (SSR)? How can evolutionary approaches be applied to SSR in practice? This paper from the Libra Advisory Group examines theoretical approaches to institutional change and their implications for SSR. It argues that an evolutionary approach to SSR can make the reform
- [Security Sector Reform and the Fight Against Terrorism](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/security-sector-reform-and-the-fight-against-terrorism/) - To what extent might security sector reform (SSR) help prevent, contain or defeat terrorism? This paper by the Danish Institute for International Studies looks at various approaches to counterterrorism, distinguishing between prevention, active defence and passive defence. It also considers different settings of reform – in the West and in developing countries. It argues that whatever
- [Trends in Security Sector Reform (SSR): Policy, Practice and Research](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/trends-in-security-sector-reform-ssr-policy-practice-and-research/) - Why has Security Sector Reform (SSR) emerged as a key area for research and policy? How has SSR research and practice evolved, particularly since the 9/11 attacks? What research efforts have been made in the area of SSR? This paper charts the emergence of the SSR policy agenda and examines how it has evolved over
- [Time to let go: Remaking humanitarian action for the modern era](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/time-to-let-go-remaking-humanitarian-action-for-the-modern-era/) - The decades since the end of the Second World War have seen a significant expansion in the number, type and size of humanitarian organisations and a proliferation of players laying claim to the humanitarian cause. Despite this progress, the humanitarian system is struggling to keep pace with the growing demands of more frequent and more
- [Social dimensions of climate change: Equity and vulnerability in a warming world](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-dimensions-climate-change-equity-vulnerability-warming-world/) - This introductory chapter calls for the combination of climate change measures with social development and sustainability goals, and emphasises the impact of climate change on inclusion and social justice. Many current mitigation measures risk undermining the livelihoods of those most vulnerable to impacts of climate change, with unintended consequences. It introduces key themes on a range
- [Poverty and social impact analysis for climate change development policy and operations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-social-impact-analysis-climate-change-development-policy-operations/) - This guidance note draws on World Bank experience to address the why, who, what and how to conduct poverty and social impact analysis (PSIA) in the context of climate change development policy and operations. PSIA provides an understanding of vulnerability, marginalisation, accountability and voice. This document supports the idea that integrating a strong social perspective
- [Cities and climate change: Global report on human settlements 2011](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cities-climate-change-global-report-human-settlements-2011/) - In the context of rising urbanisation, climate change is presenting unique challenges that require greater understanding. Challenges range from the physical (increasing heat waves, higher sea levels), but also providing basic services. The impact will be particularly severe in low-elevation coastal zones, where many of the world’s largest cities are located. Despite this, most international climate change
- [Can climate finance contribute to gender equity in developing countries?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/can-climate-finance-contribute-to-gender-equity-in-developing-countries/) - Climate finance is generally known as financial flows mobilised by industrialised country governments and private entities that support climate change mitigation and adaptation in developing countries. This paper raises questions as to whether climate finance creates a level playing field as women and men decide how climate resources are used, and whether climate funds are
- [Digital financial services in the Pacific – Experiences and regulatory issues](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/digital-financial-services-in-the-pacific-experiences-and-regulatory-issues/) - This paper examines how digital financial services (DFS) can be used to improve financial inclusion in the Pacific. It looks at the current use of DFS in seven Pacific island countries, explores the regulation and supervision of DFS, and provides recommendations for the expansion of DFS in the Pacific. The paper explains the two main
- [Implications of climate change for armed conflict](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/implications-climate-change-armed-conflict/) - This paper identifies three climate change processes could cause conflict and social instability: increasing resource scarcity; intensifying natural disasters; and bringing about a sea level rise. Risks associated with these processes are primarily destruction of infrastructure, increased health risks, and loss of livelihoods. Other ways climate change could affect conflict include: economic and political instability, social fragmentation, migration and
- [Gender, climate change and health](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-climate-change-and-health/) - How do climate change, gender and health relate? This report shows how gender norms, attitudes and behaviours affect climate-related health risks and climate change adaptation and mitigation measures. It aims to provide a framework to strengthen World Health Organization (WHO) support to member states in developing health risk assessments and climate policy interventions that are beneficial to
- [Incorporating climate change considerations into agricultural investment design: a guidance document](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/incorporating-climate-change-considerations-agricultural-investment-design-guidance-document/) - How can climate change considerations be incorporated into all stages of agricultural investment (farming, fisheries, livestock and forestry) programme cycles? This guide intends to raise awareness and understanding of the basics of climate change adaptation and mitigation in the agricultural sector. It advises using key information sources, methods and tools for climate change adaptation and mitigation
- [Rebuilding state-society relations in post-war states: Assessing a theory of change approach to local governance reform in Timor- Leste](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rebuilding-state-society-relations-in-post-war-states-assessing-a-theory-of-change-approach-to-local-governance-reform-in-timor-leste/) - This paper analyses the Theory of Change underlying The Asia Foundation’s local governance reform programme in Timor-Leste. It explores the country's political and governance context and considered how well the Suku Governance Support Programme (PAGOS) responds to this. The paper highlights successes of, and tensions within, the programme approaches to state-society relations. It finds that although the programme is context-appropriate to
- [Societal dynamics and fragility](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/societal-dynamics-and-fragility/) - This study departs from the dominant understanding that weak state capacity, legitimacy or will to deliver basic services underpins fragility and argues that fragility is also about relationships between state and society and within society. These relationships occur in a non-linear continuum which, when understood, can inform interventions that can help prevent societies from slipping towards greater
- [Southern philanthropy, social justice and human rights](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/southern-philanthropy-social-justice-and-human-rights/) - This discussion paper addresses the question of how philanthropists in the global south could better support the activities of civil society organisations (CSOs) to promote human rights and social justice, including actions that focus on advocacy, accountability and mobilisation. The paper is informed by interviews conducted with 12 representatives of philanthropic foundations and institutions, based
- [Good neighbours? Africans express high levels of tolerance for many, but not for all](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/good-neighbours-africans-express-high-levels-of-tolerance-for-many-but-not-for-all/) - This report presents new findings on tolerance in Africa from Afrobarometer Round 6 surveys in 33 countries in 2014/2015. (The questions on tolerance were not asked in Algeria, Egypt, and Sudan because research partners deemed the question about tolerance for homosexuals too sensitive.) The survey asks respondents whether they would like, dislike, or be indifferent to
- [Women and power: Overcoming barriers to leadership and influence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/women-and-power-overcoming-barriers-to-leadership-and-influence/) - What enables women's substantive voice and influence in decision-making processes? Does women's presence and influence in decision-making improve outcomes for other women and advance gender equality? This report synthesises findings from two years of research on women's voice and leadership in decision-making in developing countries. It explores the factors that help and hinder women's access
- [PEFA: What is it good for? The role of PEFA assessments in public financial management reform](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/pefa-what-is-it-good-for-the-role-of-pefa-assessments-in-public-financial-management-reform/) - How can the PEFA framework both help and hinder our understanding of PFM systems? This paper illustrates how PEFA can be (mis)used to guide PFM system reform. While the PEFA framework remains the most comprehensive indicator of PFM to date – over 500 formal assessments have been undertaken and verified by the Secretariat since its
- [Countering violent extremism through media and communication strategies: A review of the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/countering-violent-extremism-through-media-and-communication-strategies-a-review-of-the-evidence/) - Current global challenges posed by violent Islamist extremism (VIE) has increased the need for an evidenced-based understanding of how democracies can respond to such threats. This review presents a fragmented research landscape: the potential for mass media to influence communities, societies and individuals is clear yet precisely how this capacity can be employed by democracies
- [Climate change, disaster risk and the urban poor: Cities building resilience for a changing world.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-change-disaster-risk-and-the-urban-poor-cities-building-resilience-for-a-changing-world/) - High concentrations of people and economic assets, often in hazard-prone areas, means cities are vulnerable environments. The report analyses the vulnerabilities and risks of cities with a particular focus on the urban poor and the city's adaptive capacities. It explores how the urban poor are at risk from climate change and natural hazards, the role
- [8th annual ASDA’A Burson-Marsteller Arab youth survey: Inside the hearts and minds of Arab youth.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/arab-youth-survey-2016/) - There are 200 million young people in the Middle East and North Africa. This white paper provides a snapshot of the ambitions, hopes and fears of young people at a challenging time for the region. The survey asks young Arabs to share their views on a range of topics including: the economy, the impact of the
- [Gender and climate change: Overview report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-and-climate-change-overview-report-bridge-cutting-edge-pack/) - What is the relationship between gender and climate change? This literature review explores the gender dimensions of climate change, focusing on the differing climate change needs and priorities of men and women. It highlights the need for a people-centered approach to climate change responses, and advocates for an approach in which women and men have
- [Energy for all: Harnessing the power of energy access for chronic poverty reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/energy-for-all-harnessing-the-power-of-energy-access-for-chronic-poverty-reduction/) - Energy poverty strongly correlates with income poverty, and is most acute in the poorest households in rural areas. This guide argues that access to electricity, combined with assets, can help people escape persistent poverty. Complementary interventions, coordination, and inter-sectoral collaboration are recommended to maximise the poverty reduction potential of energy services. National commitment and vision, engaged
- [The state of food and agriculture: social protection and agriculture – breaking the cycle of rural poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-food-agriculture-social-protection-agriculture-breaking-cycle-rural-poverty/) - Agriculture and social protection are fundamentally linked in the context of rural livelihoods. Social protection programmes contribute to higher household incomes and increased consumption, enhancing households’ ability to produce food. This report shows that even relatively small transfers help the poor overcome liquidity and credit constraints, and provide insurance against risks that would otherwise deter
- [Women’s rights in the cocoa sector: Examples of emerging good practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/womens-rights-in-the-cocoa-sector-examples-of-emerging-good-practice/) - Many existing cocoa sector programmes have tended towards community development without understanding the links between female beneficiaries and their supply chain. This paper identifies 10 areas of emerging good practice to learn from and encourages looking at the social dimension of production and interactions between differing actors to bring a gender dimension. It also emphasises the
- [More than just talk? A literature review on promoting human rights through political dialogue](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/more-than-just-talk-a-literature-review-on-promoting-human-rights-through-political-dialogue/) - To what extent does political human rights dialogue contribute to better human rights performance generally? This paper reviews literature on human rights promotion through political dialogue. It focuses on bilateral relations that form part of Norway's country-level dialogue. It finds there is not much evidence that dialogues are effective. The paper describes current dialogue programmes and calls
- [Gender inequality, female leadership and aid allocation: A panel analysis of aid for education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-inequality-female-leadership-and-aid-allocation-a-panel-analysis-of-aid-for-education/) - Do recipient countries with persistent gender inequality in schooling receive more aid for education? This paper explores two hypotheses based on aid allocation: need and merit. It finds that female leadership appears to have played a marginal role in the allocation of aid for education. It also finds no evidence of a needs-based allocation of aid for
- [Social protection and sustainable natural resource management: initial findings and good practices from small-scale fisheries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-protection-and-sustainable-natural-resource-management-initial-findings-and-good-practices-from-small-scale-fisheries/) - How does social protection and other measures reduce vulnerability and strengthen resilience among households and communities dependent on renewable natural resources? The paper identifies and reviews the potential of social protection policies, schemes and instruments. It shows that small-scale fishers and fishworkers are typically inadequately or totally unprotected. While conventions and regulations aimed at addressing these
- [Just keeping them busy? Youth employment projects as a peacebuilding tool](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/just-keeping-them-busy-youth-employment-projects-as-a-peacebuilding-tool/) - Youth unemployment is a particular concern to the peacebuilding agenda and has resulted in the prioritisation of giving young people jobs in post-conflict countries and an increase in resources for youth employment projects. This article challenges the traditional theory of the change underpinning these projects that job creation for young people will naturally strengthen social cohesion and
- [Tackling youth unemployment in sub-Saharan Africa: Is there a role for artisanal and small-scale mining?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/tackling-youth-unemployment-in-sub-saharan-africa-is-there-a-role-for-artisanal-and-small-scale-mining/) - Youth unemployment is one of the most pressing issues in sub-Saharan Africa today. There is broad agreement that the issue is intensifying, in large part, due to inadequate efforts to mobilise idle youth. This paper argues that artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) could offer an interim solution to the issue, enabling the time and space
- [Function versus form in public sector reform](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/function-versus-form-public-sector-reform/) - This book chapter aims to broaden the options for public sector reform. It explores micro-level initiatives that aim to support the emergence of institutions capable of fulfilling governance expectations. One approach is to focus on comprehensive reforms along Weberian principles with trickle-down principles. The other is more incremental via targeted efforts and multi-stakeholder initiatives. It
- [Climate change and food security: Risks and responses](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-change-and-food-security-risks-and-responses/) - This publication provides an overview of the effects of climate change on vulnerabilities in food security and nutrition, and explores ways to reduce negative impacts through adaptation and resilience. Reducing vulnerability and investing in resilience, in particular through social protection at household level, is key to adaptation. The report advises that food security and nutrition
- [A study on organisational development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-study-on-organisational-development/) - People often do not understand what organisational development is and yet, if they work in international development, it is very likely that they must have been involved in it. There is a wealth of information on Organisational Development (OD) and so, planning which approach a programme takes from the outset is important. This paper synthesises
- [Meaningful community engagement in the extractive industries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/meaningful-community-engagement-in-the-extractive-industries/) - What is the relationship between extractive industry projects and the local communities living in close proximity to such projects? Stakeholder engagement is central to extractive industry companies securing a social licence to operate. While there is lots of guidance on how to do stakeholder engagement well, this paper draws attention to the major implementation challenges
- [When and how to develop an impact-oriented monitoring and evaluation system](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/when-and-how-to-develop-an-impact-oriented-monitoring-and-evaluation-system/) - This guidance note was developed in response to a common challenge experienced by organisations whereby they commission an impact evaluation at the end of intervention only to find that there is insufficient data about implementation, context, baselines or interim results. Dealing with impact – if deemed relevant to the type of intervention – early on
- [Social protection and safety nets in the Middle East and North Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-protection-and-safety-nets-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/) - What role can social protection play in addressing the significant and interdependent social, political, economic and environmental challenges facing the Middle East and North Africa region (MENA)? This report gives an overview of the provision of social protection in MENA and how safety nets and broader social protection instruments can offer partial solutions to some
- [Big results now? Emerging lessons from Results-Based Aid in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/big-results-now-emerging-lessons-from-results-based-aid-in-tanzania/) - Experiments with Results-Based Aid (RBA) is an ongoing trend in development cooperation. This paper analyses design features and initial implementation experiences of three ongoing RBA programmes in Tanzania that support government reforms in the water, education and decentralisation sectors. It finds that the overarching programme and the nature of capacity development support clearly prioritise short-term
- [Violence against women in the Gaza strip after the Israeli military operation protective edge 2014](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/violence-against-women-in-the-gaza-strip-after-the-israeli-military-operation-protective-edge-2014/) - This report explores violence against women (VAW) in the Gaza Strip following Operation Protective Edge. It highlights the relationship between VAWG in conflict-affected areas and levels of vulnerability of conflict and displacement. It also looks at the challenges organisations face in the provision of support services. The study recommends multidimensional responses that aim to change
- [Social norms theory and development economics](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-norms-theory-and-development-economics/) - Social norms are found in all societies and have great impact on human behaviour. They can be both a hindrance and a help for development, depending on whether or not changes necessary for development fit with existing norms. This paper outlines what social norms are, how they function, and the factors that affect their emergence
- [The state of social safety nets 2015](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-state-of-social-safety-nets-2015/) - As of 2015, every country in the world has at least one social safety net programmes in place, and the average developing country has about 20 ongoing programmes. This report draws on data that was previously unavailable to examine trends in coverage, spending, and programme performance of the main safety net programmes that exist globally. and
- [Social inclusion, poverty eradication and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-inclusion-poverty-eradication-and-the-2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development/) - A renewed interest in social inclusion has highlighted the need for the simultaneous promotion of productivity, poverty reduction and greater inclusiveness. This paper argues that there are three key interrelated areas that are critical for poverty eradication and inclusive development: (i) universal social protection; (ii) meaningful participation; and (iii) social and solidarity economy. It calls for
- [From 'good governance' to governance that works](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/from-good-governance-to-governance-that-works/) - Governance needs for development in Africa is not so easily identified with the good governance template. This chapter explores how best fit examples of reforms have yet to make a clean break with conventional thinking on good governance; with a continued focus on the principal-agent framework rather than collective action. It calls for a more
- [Climate-smart agriculture](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-smart-agriculture/) - This sourcebook is a reference tool focussing on climate-smart agriculture (CSA). It examines CSA's potential, its challenges and its limitations in the agricultural sector, including forestry and fisheries at national and subnational levels. The sourcebook aims to assist political and technical managers to understand options available for policy and planning, investments and interventions to make the
- [Food security and climate change](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/food-security-climate-change/) - This report examines the impact of climate change on food security. It argues that climate change will have detrimental impacts on food security and agricultural systems: reducing the productivity of existing food systems; harming the livelihoods of those already vulnerable to food insecurity; and increasing the challenges of providing clean water. It offers a number of
- [Social analysis for agriculture and rural investment projects](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-analysis-for-agriculture-and-rural-investment-projects/) - This series of three guides focuses on applying social analysis (SA) in the design, support and evaluation of agricultural and rural investment programmes, including climate change adaptation. SA is understood to generate more relevant, inclusive, pro-poor and sustainable programmes because it facilitates greater understanding of the socio-economic environment, livelihoods and people’s development challenges and priorities. The
- [The Philippine social pension at four years: Insights and recommendations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-philippine-social-pension-at-four-years-insights-and-recommendations/) - This study provides lessons in two key areas for assessing the progress of the Philippine social pension: (a) impact of the scheme, and (b) implementation, specifically targeting and validation. Findings suggest the scheme provides invaluable support recipients, but needs to do more to reach the most vulnerable older people, improve targeting and ensure methods of delivery are
- [Labor markets and poverty in village economies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/labor-markets-and-poverty-in-village-economies/) - This paper reports the results of a randomized evaluation of the nationwide roll-out of a program that transfers assets and skills to the poorest women in villages in Bangladesh, studied through a detailed labour survey that tracks over 21,000 households, drawn from the entire wealth distribution in 1,309 rural Bangladeshi villages, four times over a
- [Broadening Spaces for Citizens in Violent Contexts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/broadening-spaces-for-citizens-in-violent-contexts/) - How can people be directly involved in finding solutions for their security and livelihood needs? Research suggests that, although violence deters citizens from taking action, external actors in violent contexts can help to facilitate citizen action that is non-violent and socially legitimate. To do this, donors need a locally nuanced understanding of the complex relationship
- [Citizen-State Relations: Improving Governance Through Tax Reform](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/citizen-state-relations-improving-governance-through-tax-reform/) - How can tax reform enhance citizen-state relations? This report examines the role of taxation in building more responsive and accountable government, and in expanding state capacity. It finds that the specific character of tax systems and of tax reform is very important to strengthening connections between taxation and broader governance gains. Governments and donors can
- [Conflict, Security and Development: Practical Country Directions and Options](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conflict-security-and-development-practical-country-directions-and-options/) - How have different countries recovered from episodes of violence? What practical tools exist for confidence-building? This chapter provides basic principles and a toolkit of options emerging from country lessons, showing how these can be adapted to different contexts. Key principles for sustained violence prevention and recovery are: inclusion (although coalitions need not be 'all inclusive');
- [Voices of Civil Society Organisations on Peacebuilding and Statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/voices-of-civil-society-organisations-on-peacebuilding-and-statebuilding/) - What are the views of civil society organisations (CSOs) on statebuilding and peacebuilding? This report presents the findings of a consultation designed to input into the International Dialogue on Peacebuilding and Statebuilding (Timor-Leste, April 2010). CSOs argue that the way that peacebuilding and statebuilding processes are undertaken is critically important: there is a need to
- [Test it and they might come: Improving the uptake of digital tools in transparency and accountability initiatives](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/opening-governance/) - Information and communications technologies (ICTs) and data play an increasingly visible role in transparency and accountability initiatives (TAIs). This article investigates TAI tool selection processes in South Africa and Kenya. It argues that in many cases, tools are chosen with only limited testing of their appropriateness for the intended users in the intended contexts, despite
- [Anti-corruption strategies in foreign aid: From controls to results](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/anti-corruption-strategies-in-foreign-aid-from-controls-to-results/) - This paper argues that efforts to address corruption - targeting funder integrity, recipient integrity and global support - have proven to be largely ineffective against corruption and had a limited impact on development results. It highlights how current approaches rely primarily on transactional controls and, to a lesser extent, on investments in transparency and raising
- [Beneath the apparent state of affairs: Stability in Ghana and Benin: The potential for radicalization and political violence in West Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beneath-the-apparent-state-of-affairs-stability-in-ghana-and-benin-the-potential-for-radicalization-and-political-violence-in-west-africa/) - In this report of a research mission to West Africa, the authors describe (potential) tensions between religious denominations in the West African region, with a specific focus on Benin and Ghana. The report is based on extensive interviews during October 2015 that were conducted in Cotonou, Porto Novo, Accra and Tamale with labour unions, students,
- [Innovating for pro-poor services: Why politics matter](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/innovating-for-pro-poor-services-why-politics-matter/) - This paper argues that politics is a major factor that can interact with innovations, with positive or negative implications for services for poor people and achievement of related sustainable development goals targets. The key question it seeks to address is, ‘How do innovation and politics interrelate when it comes to providing services for poor people,
- [United they fall: Why the international community should not promote military integration after civil war.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/united-they-fall-why-the-international-community-should-not-promote-military-integration-after-civil-war/) - Civil war participants, scholars, transnational civil society, and international governmental organizations believe that military integration significantly reduces the risk of a society’s relapse into civil war. However, other than a few scattered case studies and some contradictory aggregate data analyses, there has been little theoretical or empirical investigation about what constitutes ‘good’ military integration and
- [Violence, Peace, and Peace Research](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/violence-peace-and-peace-research/) - This paper is a theoretical discussion of the definitions and dimensions of the terms ‘peace’ and ‘violence’ in the field of peace research. If peace is used to largely mean the ‘absence of violence,’ then it is crucial to understand the many facets of violence. The author rejects the narrow view of violence as the
- [A Measure of Peace: Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) of Development Projects in Conflict Zones](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-measure-of-peace-peace-and-conflict-impact-assessment-pcia-of-development-projects-in-conflict-zones/) - This paper examines the critical linkages between peace/conflict and development through peace and conflict impact assessments (PCIA) of development projects in conflict zones. It argues that peacebuilding should not be regarded as a specific activity but as an impact. It notes a need to avoid “ghettoising” peacebuilding as a type of project separate from “conventional”
- [Too important to fail: Addressing the humanitarian financing gap](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/too-important-to-fail-addressing-the-humanitarian-financing-gap/) - This is the report of an expert panel on ways to reduce the estimated US$ 15 billion funding gap for humanitarian action. The panel makes recommendations under three themes. Shrink the needs: The most effective way to bring down the cost of humanitarian aid is to reduce the necessity to resort to it. The panel
- [Women’s voice and leadership in decision-making: Assessing the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/womens-voice-and-leadership-in-decision-making-assessing-the-evidence/) - This report reviews the global evidence on the processes of change that enable women to have substantive voice and leadership in decision-making. It answers two core research questions: what are the enabling factors for women and girls’ voice, leadership and access to decision-making? what do we know about whether and how women and girls’ voice,
- [Women’s resilience: Integrating gender in the response to Ebola](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/womens-resilience-integrating-gender-in-the-response-to-ebola/) - This report presents the results of desk research by the African Development Bank’s Office of the Special Envoy on Gender on the implications of Ebola virus disease (EVD) for women in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. The reduction in health services has increased maternal, infant, and child mortality rates. According to reports across the three
- [Approaches to Improving the Delivery of Social Services in Difficult Environments](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/approaches-to-improving-the-delivery-of-social-services-in-difficult-environments/) - What are the challenges faced by external actors in supporting service delivery in difficult environments (SDDE)? This working paper from the UK Department of International Development asks what type of approaches, and under what conditions, improve human development outcomes and build pro-poor government-led systems in fragile states. It argues that the international community should emphasise
- [Service Delivery in Fragile Situations: Key Concepts, Findings and Lessons](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/service-delivery-in-fragile-situations-key-concepts-findings-and-lessons/) - How can service delivery be strengthened in the context of a fragile state? This report from the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development reviews evidence on the impact of state fragility on service delivery. Donors should tailor interventions to context, maintain a long-term focus on governance and state-building and manage
- [Building State Failure in East Timor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/building-state-failure-in-east-timor/) - International state-building interventions frequently invite controversy and the United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor (UNTAET) was no exception. Can international intervention succeed where local participation is excluded? Should a 'peace-maintenance' mandate involve bestowing sovereignty on the United Nations? This paper, compiled for Development and Change, reviews the governorship style of intervention exercised by the
- [Aiding the State? International Assistance and the Statebuilding Paradox in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/aiding-the-state-international-assistance-and-the-statebuilding-paradox-in-afghanistan/) - How can a sustainable, legitimate and effective state be established in Afghanistan? As it moves from a transitional framework to a longer-term development framework, insurgency, opium and popular discontent threaten to undermine progress and further destabilise the country. This paper from the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) argues that while these threats require short-term action,
- [Policies towards Horizontal Inequalities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/policies-towards-horizontal-inequalities/) - Severe horizontal inequalities (HIs), or inequalities among groups, are undesirable in themselves and can lead to violent conflict. So, what can be done to reduce them? This paper from the Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity (CRISE) reviews a range of policies which could contribute to reducing HIs in the political, socio-economic
- [Have Post-conflict Development Policies Addressed Horizontal Inequalities?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/have-post-conflict-development-policies-addressed-horizontal-inequalities/) - How can economic and social policies help to sustain peace processes and promote stability and reconciliation in deeply divided post-conflict societies? This review of studies of Horizontal Inequalities (HIs) in post-conflict countries finds that while HIs are increasingly recognised as a cause of conflict, policies to address them have been very limited. Such policies may
- [Do No Harm: International Support for Statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/do-no-harm-international-support-for-statebuilding/) - How can donor interventions hinder or assist statebuilding processes? This report from the OECD's Development Assistance Committee draws on country case-studies to examine five key areas of statebuilding. Donors operating in fragile states need to analyse where their own countries’ strategic objectives contradict statebuilding objectives and where statebuilding objectives are themselves at odds. Donors can
- [The Legitimacy of the State in Fragile Situations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-legitimacy-of-the-state-in-fragile-situations/) - What is the nature of state legitimacy in fragile situations? How can legitimacy be fostered in such situations? This report was commissioned by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation and the French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs. It suggests that legitimacy concerns the very basis for how state and society are linked and by
- [The State's Legitimacy in Fragile Situations: Unpacking Complexity](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-states-legitimacy-in-fragile-situations-unpacking-complexity/) - State legitimacy provides the basis for rule by consent rather than coercion, but in fragile situations multiple, conflicting sources of legitimacy co-exist. How can the complex interactions between these different sources be better understood and constructively combined? Donors should pay particular attention to: (a) legitimacy deriving from shared beliefs and traditions; and (b) the processes
- [Revenues, State Formation, and the Quality of Governance in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/revenues-state-formation-and-the-quality-of-governance-in-developing-countries/) - Sources of state revenue have a major impact on patterns of state formation. This article, published in International Political Science Review, investigates how far the quality of governance in developing countries might improve if states were more dependent for their financial resources on domestic taxpayers. It argues that we can best understand patterns of state
- [Enhancing the Delivery of Justice and Security in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/enhancing-the-delivery-of-justice-and-security-in-fragile-states/) - How should international actors contribute to the support of justice and security in fragile states? This paper from the OECD/DAC Network on Conflict, Peace and Development Co-operation analyses the providers, processes and objectives of fragile states’ justice and security services, and reviews lessons learnt by donors in this area. It argues that international actors should
- [From Fragility to Resilience: Concepts and Dilemmas of Statebuilding in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/from-fragility-to-resilience-concepts-and-dilemmas-of-statebuilding-in-fragile-states/) - What is state building? How can external actors support this complex and context-specific process in fragile states? This discussion paper from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development sees state building as an internal political process of state-society bargaining. While successful state building will almost always be the product of domestic action, it can be
- [Making Aid Work in Fragile States: Case Studies of Effective Aid-Financed Programs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-aid-work-in-fragile-states-case-studies-of-effective-aid-financed-programs/) - Can donors 'do development' in recent post-conflict settings? Can aid achieve sustainable results in a poor governance framework? This background document for the World Bank looks at four programmes that have been successful in war-torn settings. The case studies from Timor Leste, Northern Uganda, Cambodia, and North-Western Afghanistan are assessed in terms of their poverty
- [Budget Support in Fragile Situations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/budget-support-in-fragile-situations/) - This study examines the rationale, challenges of and conditions applied to budget support to fragile states; the effects of budget support on spending and the delivery of social and agricultural services; and the ability of parliaments and civil society to hold governments and donors to account for public spending. It highlights the current volatility of
- [3C Approaches to Fragile and Conflict Situations: Taking Stock of Commitments and Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/3c-approaches-to-fragile-and-conflict-situations-taking-stock-of-commitments-and-challenges/) - How can the international community advance the implementation of a Coherent, Coordinated and Complementary (3C) approach in fragile states? This paper from the Netherlands Institute of International Relations 'Clingendael’ outlines the findings of previous OECD-DAC studies on whole of government approaches as well as the main recommendations of three thematic meetings in 2008. While progress
- [Principles for Good International Engagement in Fragile States and Situations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/principles-for-good-international-engagement-in-fragile-states-and-situations/) - How can international actors maximise the positive impact of engagement in fragile situations and minimise unintentional harm? These updated Principles from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development suggest ways in which international actors can foster constructive engagement between national and international stakeholders. The long-term vision for international engagement is to help national reformers build
- [Preventing Violence, War and State Collapse: The Future of Conflict Early Warning and Response](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/preventing-violence-war-and-state-collapse-the-future-of-conflict-early-warning-and-response/) - Are early warning and response systems prepared for the conflicts of the future? This report from the OECD reviews recent literature on early warning and response to assess their value and their role in the prevention of violent conflict and for peacebuilding. It concludes that early warning and response systems require further support to ensure their
- [Mineral-Resource Abundance and Violent Political Conflict: A Critical Assessment of the Rentier State Model](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mineral-resource-abundance-and-violent-political-conflict-a-critical-assessment-of-the-rentier-state-model/) - How useful is the idea of a 'resource curse' in understanding the causes of conflict in low and middle-income countries? This paper from the Crisis States Programme at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) critically examines this argument on both methodological and empirical grounds. It finds little convincing evidence that mineral abundance
- [Fragility and Natural Resources](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fragility-and-natural-resources/) - How can fragile states make the most of their resource endowments without falling victim to resource conflicts or authoritarianism? This policy brief from the Danish Institute for International Studies advocates a re-examination of the link between natural resource governance and state fragility in order to better understand why many states fall victim to the 'resource
- [Fragility: Drivers and Consequences](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fragility-drivers-and-consequences/) - How can fragility be described and understood? This chapter of the 2009 European Report on Development (ERD) reviews the literature on the main drivers and consequences of fragility, focusing on the relationship between fragility and conflict. It argues that in spite of the diversity of definitions of fragile states, there is consensus that they are
- [Fragile States: Defining Difficult Environments for Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fragile-states-defining-difficult-environments-for-poverty-reduction/) - Fragile states take many forms. What is the most useful way of defining them? This paper, by UK Government's Department for International Development (DFID), adopts a definition of 'difficult environments' grounded in the role of the state in development effectiveness. The definition is both linked to the wider debate about fragile states and at the
- [Fragile States: CRISE Overview 3](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fragile-states-crise-overview-3/) - How can the concept of fragile states be operationalised for development policy? This paper offers a working definition of fragile states as states that are failing, or at high risk of failing, in their: 1) authority to protect citizens, 2) comprehensive provision of basic services, or 3) governance legitimacy. To design appropriately differentiated policies, policymakers
- [Integration and power-sharing: What are the future options for armed non-state actors in the Myanmar peace process?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/integration-and-power-sharing-what-are-the-future-options-for-armed-non-state-actors-in-the-myanmar-peace-process/) - The ongoing peace process in Myanmar/Burma takes place alongside a transition from totalitarian military rule towards democracy and a rapid influx of international aid agencies and investors. This article engages with the wider debate about ‘Demobilization, Disarmament and Reintegration’ (DDR) programmes and argues that in the present Myanmar peacebuilding context it is highly unlikely that
- [Voice and accountability matters for better education and health services](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/voice-and-accountability-matters-for-better-education-and-health-services/) - This Briefing Note synthesises experience with citizen voice and accountability in the education and health sectors and highlights the role of information and communication processes in promoting participation, transparency and accountability. It provides practical insights into the issues and opportunities for interventions that promote voice and accountability to contribute to improved outcomes. It aims to
- [Youth entrepreneurship in the contemporary global South](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/youth-entrepreneurship-in-the-contemporary-global-south/) - This short editorial explores the importance of entrepreneurship among youth in the global South. It offers an overview of the various ways in which young people are finding economic niches within uncertain economic landscapes. However, it warns against the ideological risks attached to celebrations of youth entrepreneurialism and calls for a focus on entrepreneurship that addresses the institutional environment
- [An evaluation of Hogaan iyo Nabad: A community driven governance programme in Somalia/Somaliland](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/an-evaluation-of-hogaan-iyo-nabad-a-community-driven-governance-programme-in-somaliasomaliland/) - The report presents the results of an evaluation of Hogaan iyo Nabad, a Community Driven Reconstruction (CDR) programme in Somaliland and Somalia.The programme was funded by DFID and implemented by CARE, DRC and IRC, and aimed at strengthening local governance in rural and rather remote districts in Somaliland (Erigabo) and Puntland (Galkayo and Burtinle). To
- [Taxation and State Building: Towards a Governance Focused Tax Reform Agenda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/taxation-and-state-building-towards-a-governance-focused-tax-reform-agenda/) - How can tax reform support statebuilding and improve governance? This paper argues that particular reforms within the tax system can generate significant gains in state capacity and trigger the expansion of responsive and accountable government. Development agencies should focus more on the political economy of taxation. They should move beyond technocratic reforms towards an agenda
- [The politics of governing oil effectively: A comparative study of two new oil-rich states in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/politics-governing-oil-effectively-comparative-study-two-new-oil-rich-states-africa/) - This paper challenges the mainstream understanding that the quality of institutions within resource-rich countries is the key to how successfully they will manage to avoid the ‘resource curse’. While this understanding would expect democratic Ghana to more effectively and accountably manage its oil than semi-authoritarian Uganda, the findings of this paper suggest otherwise. It argues that
- [Building effective women’s economic empowerment strategies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/building-effective-womens-economic-empowerment-strategies/) - How can the private sector actively promote women’s economic empowerment? This paper argues that real progress will come when companies shift from opportunistic and isolated initiatives to holistic and integrated approaches. It proposes eight building blocks that should address underlying systemic barriers to women’s economic empowerment and include gender dynamics across the entire company. Supportive corporate structures
- [DisasterNet Philippines: Scoping study report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disasternet-philippines-scoping-study-report/) - The Philippines is a country disproportionately affected by natural disasters. This scoping study assesses some of the key gaps in disaster preparedness and current limits of disaster resilience strategies. It argues that while the country possesses a robust disaster management system, underlying disparities in wealth, large numbers of informal settlements, and the limited professionalisation of disaster
- [Arab voices on the challenges of the new Middle East](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/arab-voices-on-the-challenges-of-the-new-middle-east/) - This survey represents the detailed views of 105 experts from almost every Arab country. Questions were asked in both English and Arabic, and respondents include include civil society leaders and activists, industry leaders, scholars, former cabinet ministers, parliamentarians, and advisers to heads of state. Some emerged during the Arab Awakening; others have decades of experience.
- [Insurgency and spaces of active citizenship: the story of Western Cape anti-eviction campaign in South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/insurgency-and-spaces-of-active-citizenship-the-story-of-western-cape-anti-eviction-campaign-in-south-africa/) - This article explores the practices, agency and vision of Western Cape Anti-eviction Campaign (AEC) members in their quest for social justice. It argues that global neoliberal policies involving privatisation of, and state withdrawal from, the provision of basic services have resulted in simultaneous and contradictory processes of exclusion and inclusion for the poor; at once
- [Unpacking 'participation'](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/unpacking-participation/) - ‘Participation’ has entered the development mainstream and is used by a variety of institutions, but what it means can vary enormously between different actors. This article explores some of the meanings and practices associated with participation, in theory and in practice. It suggests that it is vital to pay closer attention to who is participating,
- [Evaluating digital citizen engagement: A practical guide](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/evaluating-digital-citizen-engagement-a-practical-guide/) - This guide provides practical steps to assess the extent to which digital tools have contributed to citizen engagement, and to understand the impact that the introduction of technology has had on the engagement processes. The guide draws on examples and lessons from case studies from Brazil, Uganda, Cameroon and Kenya. It can be used at
- [Aid and business for sustainable development: Emerging lessons from effective aid–business partnerships in the era of the SDGs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/aid-and-business-for-sustainable-development-emerging-lessons-from-effective-aid-business-partnerships-in-the-era-of-the-sdgs/) - This project aims to better understand the key features and functions of successful partnerships for sustainable development (SD) between donors, large enterprises, small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) and the informal sector. It analyses how SD goals can be achieved through all scales and types of public–private partnerships (PPPs) between governments, donors, NGOs and developing
- [Gender-Neutral, Gender-Blind, or Gender-Sensitive Budgets?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-neutral-gender-blind-or-gender-sensitive-budgets/) - Do national budgets ignore the different roles and responsibilities of men or women? How can national budgets better reflect the economic contribution of women? And does increased gender equity lead to efficiency and economic growth? This background paper from the Commonwealth Secretariat’s Gender Responsive Budget Initiatives looks at budgets through women’s eyes. National budgets do
- [Addressing vulnerability? Cash transfer programming and protection outcomes for out-of-camp Syrian refugees](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/addressing-vulnerability-cash-transfer-programming-and-protection-outcomes-for-out-of-camp-syrian-refugees/) - This report analyses the successes and shortcomings of a Danish Refugee Council (DRC) implemented e-card programme for out-of-camp Syrian refugees in southern Turkey. While the programme was impressively broad and has helped provide food security for tens of thousands of Syrian refugees in southern Turkey, there are several areas for improvement. The report focuses on: the profiling
- [A companion guide to resilience: Practical guidance for people designing and implementing programmes that aim to increase the resilience of people living in poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-companion-guide-to-resilience-practical-guidance-for-people-designing-and-implementing-programmes-that-aim-to-increase-the-resilience-of-people-living-in-poverty/) - This guide offers practical guidance, primarily aimed at Oxfam staff and partners, for those working on project/programmes that aim to increase the resilience of those living in poverty. It highlights the importance of resilience in addressing vulnerability to climate change, natural disasters, political instability, and escalating inequality. It follows all stages of the project/programme cycle, and includes a
- [Courts, clans and companies: Mobile money and dispute resolution in Somaliland](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/courts-clans-and-companies-mobile-money-and-dispute-resolution-in-somaliland/) - Mobile money has thrived in Somaliland, providing access to storing money in e-wallets and the ability to pay for goods and services in a largely cashless economy. Its widespread adoption raises a number of social and legal questions, particularly around handling disputes. How are these disputes resolved, by which entities and according to which laws or regulations?
- [Inclusive community-based disaster risk reduction: Guidance on good practice in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, Myanmar](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/inclusive-community-based-disaster-risk-reduction-guidance-on-good-practice-in-the-ayeyarwaddy-delta-myanmar/) - This publication aims to provide guidance on good practice relating to inclusive community-based disaster risk reduction, drawing on the experience of The Myanmar Consortium for Community Resilience (MCCR). The guidance is based on an analysis of project documentation and inputs on what worked well and why, some of the challenges faced, and good practice recommendations
- [Gender & conflict analysis toolkit for peacebuilders](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-conflict-analysis-toolkit-for-peacebuilders/) - This resource includes examples from Conciliation Resources’ work. It was developed over two years and informed by research, reflection and discussion, involving colleagues, partners and numerous external experts. It begins with a summary of the essential concepts in gender and conflict analysis, and then expands on these concepts in three parts: Part I explores the concept of
- [Balancing inclusiveness, rigour and feasibility: Insights from participatory impact evaluations in Ghana and Vietnam](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/balancing-inclusiveness-rigour-and-feasibility-insights-from-participatory-impact-evaluations-in-ghana-and-vietnam/) - How can we ensure that impact evaluation of complex programmes is rigorous and inclusive, and triggers reflection and learning about contributions, while also remaining feasible? This paper reflects on piloting a Participatory Impact Assessment and Learning Approach (PIALA) to assess the impacts of two pilot government livelihood programmes. It explores trade-offs in rigour, inclusiveness and
- [It’s not a gift when it comes with price: A qualitative study of transactional sex between UN peacekeepers and Haitian citizens](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/its-not-a-gift-when-it-comes-with-price-a-qualitative-study-of-transactional-sex-between-un-peacekeepers-and-haitian-citizens/) - Sexual exploitation of civilians by peacekeepers undermines the fragile stability established in post-conflict settings. Despite this, it continues to be an ongoing problem for peacekeeping missions worldwide. This article presents data from a study that explores the opinions and experiences of Haitians who engage in transactional sex with peacekeepers. The findings present a contradiction between individual benefits
- [Security Sector Reform Policy Brief](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/security-sector-reform-policy-brief/) - What does the UK Government mean by Security Sector Reform (SSR) and how does it manage its SSR assistance to developing countries? This statement sets out the UK Government’s policy on SSR. It is illustrated with examples of SSR assistance to date and outlines implications for the future. SSR requires a joined up and holistic
- [Closing the Gap: Creating a shared vision of security sector reform](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/closing-the-gap-creating-a-shared-vision-of-security-sector-reform/) - How can we bridge the gap between policy and practice in Security Sector Reform (SSR)? This Demos report presents the results from a workshop attended by the SSR Strategy Team in 2006. It aims to identify gaps between policy and practice and recommends practical ways forward by taking into consideration participants’ experience in the field.
- [Security Sector Governance in Africa: A Handbook](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/security-sector-governance-in-africa-a-handbook/) - Since the beginning of the colonial period, African security organisations have often created greater insecurity for both states and their populations than guaranteeing individual and collective security. This handbook, by the Centre for Democracy and Development, provides guidance on undertaking security sector reform in Africa consistent with democratic governance principles and a human security agenda.
- [The Tswalu Protocol: Principles and Guidelines for Peace-Building Missions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-tswalu-protocol-principles-and-guidelines-for-peace-building-missions/) - The Tswalu Protocol recognises the ad hoc nature of international responses to armed conflict and state failure. This Brenthurst Foundation and the Danish International Development Agency (Danida) publication, instead of simply calling for more coordination, offers a set of principles and guidelines that future peacebuilders can use to help offset the inherent limitations of any
- [Markets in crises: The conflict in Mali](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/markets-in-crises-the-conflict-in-mali/) - Market analyses are key to informing decisions around transfer modalities (cash, voucher or in-kind).Traditionally this has focused on the availability and price of key commodities,but it has recently expanded to supply chain analysis, value chain analysis and pre-crisis market mapping. This study takes a more sociological perspective and, using Mali as a case study, asks
- [Security Sector Reform, Democracy and the Social Contract: From Implicit to Explicit](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/security-sector-reform-democracy-and-the-social-contract-from-implicit-to-explicit/) - What should be the primary, explicit aim of security sector reform (SSR) efforts – democracy or development? What role should the concept of the ‘social contract’ play in SSR? This article from the Journal of Security Sector Management examines the evolution of SSR and the roles of development and democratisation in that concept. It argues
- [How To Guide to Conflict Sensitivity](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/how-to-guide-to-conflict-sensitivity/) - Conflict Sensitivity Consortium comprises 35 humanitarian, development, peacebuilding and multi-mandate NGOs operating in Kenya, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka and the UK, who all share a commitment to being more conflict sensitive. With support from a four-year project funded by the UK Department for International Development – ‘Conflict Sensitivity – from concept to impact’ – the
- [The other side of gender inequality: Men and masculinities in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-other-side-of-gender-inequality-men-and-masculinities-in-afghanistan/) - The purpose of the research is to achieve an in-depth understanding of different notions of being a man in Afghanistan and how they contribute to gender inequality. This report is the result of a collaborative research project by the Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA) and the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) that is designed
- [Is the private sector more efficient?  A cautionary tale](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-the-private-sector-more-efficient-a-cautionary-tale/) - This review finds no conclusive evidence that one model of ownership (i.e. public, private or mixed) is intrinsically more efficient than the others, irrespective of how efficiency is defined. Instead the literature suggests that the efficiency of service provision is dependent on the type of service (health, education, etc.) and other specific contextual factors (e.g.
- [Haiti – Can smartphones make schools better?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/haiti-can-smartphones-make-schools-better/) - In Haiti, World Bank researchers worked with the Ministry of Education to evaluate a pilot program to use digital technology to help keep track of teachers in school and enable more effective monitoring of schools. The plan was to use smartphones to take photos in school of teachers and send the photos to a central
- [World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/world-development-report-2016-digital-dividends/) - The digital revolution has brought easier communication and information, greater convenience, free digital products, and new forms of leisure. However, digital dividends have had much less impact on global productivity, expansion of opportunity and the spread of accountable governance than once expected. This report argues that improving digital dividends requires digital development strategies that go
- [When does ICT-enabled citizen voice lead to government responsiveness?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/when-does-ict-enabled-citizen-voice-lead-to-government-responsiveness/) - This article reviews evidence on the use of 23 information and communications technology (ICT) platforms to project citizen voice to improve public service delivery. This study begins with a conceptual framework intended to clarify the different links in the causal chain in between ICT-enabled opportunities to express voice (platforms) and institutional responses. In other words,how
- [Getting good at disruption in an uncertain world](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/getting-good-at-disruption-in-an-uncertain-world/) - What does ‘disruptive change’ mean to NGO leaders and highly experienced development practitioners in middle- and low- income countries? This working paper summarises insights into how NGOs in the global South are addressing disruption in their external and internal operating environments. Beyond natural disasters, emerging technologies, political shifts and climate change the paper finds that
- [The Culture of Power in Contemporary Ethiopian Political Life](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-culture-of-power-in-contemporary-ethiopian-political-life/) - How can donors best work with the political, economic and social power structures in Ethiopia to reduce rural poverty? What are the existing power structures in Ethiopia? This analysis of power structures was prepared for the Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (Sida) as a background study for a country strategy paper. Ethiopia is potentially beginning
- [Media, discussion and attitudes in fragile contexts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/media-discussion-and-attitudes-in-fragile-contexts/) - What is the relationship between media programming, political discussion and conflict-related attitudes? This paper tests the hypothesis that balanced and inclusive media-induced discussion can be a positive force in mitigating attitudes associated with conflict. It explores how discussions programmes – where a diverse audience, representing the whole of society, is engaged in fair and balanced
- [Thinking and Working Politically: From theory building to building an evidence base](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/thinking-and-working-politically-from-theory-building-to-building-an-evidence-base/) - This paper discusses the steps required to build a robust evidence base for ‘thinking and working politically’ (TWP) in development. The ideas behind TWP are increasingly common in development discussions, and understanding which parts are necessary and sufficient conditions for success is crucial for moving it into mainstream development programming. After reviewing existing literature on
- [Accelerating sustainability: Why political economy matters.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/accelerating-sustainability-why-political-economy-matters/) - The decline in poverty and gains in living standards since the 1960s presents today's most pressing development challenge: a greater demand for resources. This paper brings together what the world can learn from development studies and from sustainability studies to understand how to accelerate sustainability in order to meet this demand. It argues that the development era
- [People and corruption: Africa survey 2015](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/people-and-corruption-africa-survey-2015/) - This report surveys the public experiences and perceptions of corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa, in order to put the views of ordinary people at the centre of corruption debates. It finds that while many Africans view corruption as being on the rise in their own country and believe their government is not doing well in tackling the issue, there are
- [Shelter from the storm: A transformative agenda for women and girls in a crisis-prone world.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/shelter-from-the-storm-a-transformative-agenda-for-women-and-girls-in-a-crisis-prone-world/) - The 2015 State of World Population report assesses the vulnerabilities of the global population, with a particular focus on women and girls in crisis situation, especially those in displacement and refugee camps. It argues that women and girls have additional vulnerabilities in these situations, most notably pregnancy and childbirth. It calls for commitment to uphold the sexual
- [Ethnic heterogeneity and public goods provision in Zambia: Evidence of a subnational ‘‘diversity dividend”](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ethnic-heterogeneity-and-public-goods-provision-in-zambia-evidence-of-a-subnational-diversity-dividend/) - This article challenges the ‘‘diversity debit” hypothesis that ethnic diversity has a negative impact on social, economic, and political outcomes. It argues that rather than focus on why this is the case, research should seek to explore the underlying mechanisms of such negative relationship, specifically why these relationships may differ across sub-national budgetary and welfare outcomes. It
- [Do citizens reward good service? Voter responses to basic service provision in southern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/do-citizens-reward-good-service-voter-responses-to-basic-service-provision-in-southern-africa/) - This study tests the accountability hypothesis that dramatic improvements in key basic infrastructural service areas – water provision, sewerage, and refuse collection – lead to increased electoral returns to the incumbent. The findings from four Southern African countries reveals a negative relationship between change in service provision and change in incumbent vote share, voters who receive services
- [Child Soldiers and Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration in West Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/child-soldiers-and-disarmament-demobilization-rehabilitation-and-reintegration-in-west-africa/) - What is the current situation regarding the use of child soldiers in West Africa? How can Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programmes reach all children who need them? This report by the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (the Coalition) surveys DDR projects carried out in Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone.
- [The ABCs of financial education: Experimental evidence on attitudes, behaviour, and cognitive biases](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-abcs-of-financial-education-experimental-evidence-on-attitudes-behaviour-and-cognitive-biases/) - How do financial education interventions facilitate informed economic decision-making? This paper argues that while financial education improves financial awareness and attitudes, it fails to improve longer term behavioural outcomes on savings and borrowing. It focuses on what may prevent recipients from benefitting from financial education if not addressed within the programme. The findings suggest a more personalised
- [Global Monitoring Report 2015/16: Development goals in an era of demographic change](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/global-monitoring-report-201516-development-goals-in-an-era-of-demographic-change/) - This report evaluates the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and spells out the areas that require attention in the transition to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Despite solid development gains in the MDGs, progress has been uneven and significant work remains. The experience of the MDGs will help drive progress toward achievement of the Sustainable Development
- [Towards more people-centric peace operations: From ‘extension of state authority’ to ‘strengthening inclusive state-society relations’](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/towards-more-people-centric-peace-operations-from-extension-of-state-authority-to-strengthening-inclusive-state-society-relations/) - Periods of conflict erode trust between national and local authorities and the people they govern, a trust that needs to be re-established. As peace operations are undertaken by inter-governmental bodies that tend to be inherently state-centric, however, peace operations need to go beyond merely supporting the extension of state-authority and strengthen inclusive state-society relations by
- [Resonating, rejecting, reinterpreting: Mapping the stabilization discourse in the United Nations Security Council, 2000–14](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/resonating-rejecting-reinterpreting-mapping-the-stabilization-discourse-in-the-united-nations-security-council-2000-14/) - The 2015 Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations examined a vast array of issues connected with peacekeeping operations. The Panel noted the strong link between peacekeeping and stabilization within the UN debates, stressing that the term has a ‘wide range of interpretations’, and that the ‘usage of this term by the United
- [Rethinking disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rethinking-disarmament-demobilization-and-reintegration-programs/) - This article introduces the special issue of Stability: International Journal of Security & Development on disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) and ‘armed non-statutory actors’ (ANSA). In the 1990s, international DDR programs were used mostly to deal with statutory and insurgent armies following peace accords to which the warring parties were signatories. Since then, however, other
- [Disability in humanitarian context: Views from affected people and field organisations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disability-in-humanitarian-context-views-from-affected-people-and-field-organisations/) - This report is based on the results of a global consultation carried out in 2015 as a contribution to the World Humanitarian Summit and is intended to better identify the changes needed for a disability-inclusive humanitarian response. A total of 769 responses were collected through three online surveys. Answers were collected from 484 people with
- [The role of women in international conflict resolution](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-women-in-international-conflict-resolution/) - Women are disproportionately impacted by war and their experiences are distinct from men; further, although women may carry a heavier burden than men during wartimes, their experiences, views, and skills are often under-valued and under-utilized in the resolution of conflict. Peace agreements and reconstruction are more sustainable and effective when women are involved in the
- [The challenge of stability and security in West Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-challenge-of-stability-and-security-in-west-africa/) - The surge in violence and conflict in West Africa comes as the sub-region has registered some of the most impressive growth rates seen on the continent in years. This book analyses the trends and dynamics of conflict and fragility in the sub-region, and examines the ability of institutions to manage the internal and external stresses to
- [State of the industry 2014: Mobile financial services for the unbanked](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-of-the-industry-2014-mobile-financial-services-for-the-unbanked/) - Now available in over 60% of developing markets, mobile financial services (MFS) are firmly established in the financial sectors of the majority of the developing world and are increasingly being used to increase access to low-cost financial services including payments, transfers, insurance, credit and savings. This report outlines 2014 trends in availability, accessibility and adoption of MFS
- [The impacts of fiscal openness: A review of the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impacts-of-fiscal-openness-a-review-of-the-evidence/) - This report presents the results of a systematic review of existing evidence on the impacts of fiscal openness. This review includes studies that (i) empirically evaluate a causal claim about the impact of an element of fiscal openness; (ii) have achieved publication as a peer-reviewed academic article, or as a book with an academic press
- [Growth and income inequality effects on poverty: The case of Pakistan (1988 –2011)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/growth-and-income-inequality-effects-on-poverty-the-case-of-pakistan-1988-2011/) - This study scrutinizes Pakistan’s statistics on growth, poverty and inequality in terms of poverty decomposition into growth and distribution components and assessment of growth in terms of its distributional neutrality with the help of widely-used statistical tools. Decomposition of poverty into growth and inequality components answers the question of what poverty outcomes would be under
- [Fighting for votes: Theory and evidence on the causes of electoral violence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fighting-for-votes-theory-and-evidence-on-the-causes-of-electoral-violence/) - This paper proposes a theoretical model of electoral violence which is tested and validated empirically. The paper studies if electoral violence is driven by (i) political competition (ii) the distribution of violent supporters and (iii) the ethnic distribution. The paper develops a model which predicts that electoral violence is more likely to emerge if two
- [Toward a rule of law culture: Exploring effective responses to justice and security challenges](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/toward-a-rule-of-law-culture-exploring-effective-responses-to-justice-and-security-challenges/) - This guide lays out a rule of law culture approach to achieving a strong rule of law – an approach that places the human, social, historical, political, and power dynamics of a society at its core. Traditional approaches to promoting rule of law tend to prioritize the role of state institutions and adopt technical, law-led
- [Public sector management reform in developing countries: Perspectives beyond NPM orthodoxy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/public-sector-management-reform-in-developing-countries-perspectives-beyond-npm-orthodoxy/) - What alternative frameworks for theory and practice offer insights and guidance beyond the new public management (NPM) orthodoxy? This article offers some answers to this question. It is the introduction to a special issue of the journal Public Administration and Development titled ‘Beyond conventional public sector management reforms in developing countries’, and includes brief summaries
- [Whose security? Building inclusive and secure societies in an unequal and insecure world](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/whose-security-building-inclusive-and-secure-societies-in-an-unequal-and-insecure-world/) - This paper analyses the connection between security and development with the aim of clarifying the intricate issues involved in this interface. It argues that the nexus between security and development is historical, but also dependent on the rapidly changing world, evolving out of colonialism to facing the challenge of powerful market forces and technology for global
- [The three political economies of electoral quality in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-three-political-economies-of-electoral-quality-in-papua-new-guinea-and-solomon-islands/) - This paper focuses on electoral quality and malpractice in the Melanesian countries of Papua New Guinea (PNG) and Solomon Islands. It argues that the electoral malpractice the countries experience is a product of three interacting political economies: national, international and local. It aims to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the origins of these electoral
- [Mindfulness and wellbeing: Mental health and humanitarian aid workers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mindfulness-and-wellbeing-mental-health-and-humanitarian-aid-workers/) - In the context of increased humanitarian demand and evidence and discussions on aid worker burnout, the issue of wellbeing in the humanitarian sector is pertinent. This resource explores the current state of wellbeing support available to aid workers within the humanitarian sector, and introduces the concept of mindfulness and mindfulness-based approaches. It calls for a
- [‘They call me warrior’: The legacy of conflict and the struggle to end sexual and gender-based violence in Sierra Leone.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/they-call-me-warrior-the-legacy-of-conflict-and-the-struggle-to-end-sexual-and-gender-based-violence-in-sierra-leone/) - This paper assesses the factors that underpin sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in Sierra Leone and outlines some of the challenges facing community-based initiatives addressing gender equality and SGBV. Findings suggest the war itself was an important catalyst of transformation on gender equality. The paper argues that SGBV is woven into people’s everyday lives, particularly in their
- [In quest of inclusive progress: Exploring intersecting inequalities in human development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/in-quest-of-inclusive-progress-exploring-intersecting-inequalities-in-human-development/) - To what extent do wealth status, urban/rural place of residence and ethnicity – and their intersection – explain inequalities in education and health? This paper traces the changes that have occurred in these intersecting inequalities in 16 countries over periods of approximately ten years. It finds that people who experience intersecting disadvantages have been left
- [NIMD Country Programme evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/nimd-country-programme-evaluation/) - The Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy commissioned an institutional evaluation of the period 2011–2014, with a focus on three country programmes (Georgia, Guatemala and Mali). The first objective of the evaluation was to assess the extent to which NIMD achieved results in the period 2011–2014. The second objective was to assess the extent to which
- [Gender and complaints mechanisms](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-and-complaints-mechanisms/) - This handbook aims to bring together and share knowledge and experience from NATO, Partner and Allied armed forces on prevention of misconduct and the handling and monitoring of complaints within armed forces, with particular regard to gender. It provides resources for: establishing a safe and non-discriminatory environment for men and women in the armed forces;
- [Striking for engagement: State-citizen relations in peacebuilding in Sierra-Leone](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/striking-for-engagement-state-citizen-relations-in-peacebuilding-in-sierra-leone/) - Despite a clear emphasis on improving state-citizen relations in the Lome Peace Agreement and post-war peace-building agenda, challenges in Sierra Leone's state-citizen relations remain. The report analyses the scope and opportunities for citizens to influence government actions; the extent to which citizens take these opportunities and why; and the outcomes and impacts of such engagement. It
- [From rhetoric to action: Towards an enabling environment  for child and youth development in the SDGs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/from-rhetoric-to-action-towards-an-enabling-environment-for-child-and-youth-development-in-the-sdgs/) - What is the enabling environment that ensures children and young people have access to their rights, can influence decisions, and have improved livelihoods? This report aims to stimulate discussion and action by decision-makers and serve to inform the strategic thinking, programming and practice. It confirms well-known hindrances, identifies opportunities, and highlights how meaningful youth participation needs
- [Global Peace Index 2015. Measuring peace, its causes and its economic value.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/global-peace-index-2015-measuring-peace-its-causes-and-its-economic-value/) - The Global Peace Index 2015 highlights an increasingly divided world: while some countries are experiencing unprecedented levels of peace, others are facing increased violence and conflict. It shows that global levels of peace remain stable compared with 2014, but are still lower than in 2008. For the first time, the Index includes a section on
- [Humanitarian trends and challenges for the Pacific region](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/humanitarian-trends-and-challenges-for-the-pacific-region/) - What are the current and post 2015 humanitarian challenges and trends for the Pacific region? The paper provides an overview of the challenges facing Pacific Island countries and territories (PICTs). Humanitarian action in the Pacific region is predominantly in response to natural disasters, but the region has also witnessed several conflicts over the past decade, and
- [The role of religion in conflict and peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-religion-in-conflict-and-peacebuilding/) - The role of religion in conflict and peacebuilding is complex, yet has often been depicted in binary terms. The report offers an overview of the relationship between religion and conflict and looks at the evidence on religion as both a driver of conflict and as a driver of peace. A more nuanced understanding of religion
- [Women warming up! Building resilient, grassroots feminist movements for climate justice in Asia-Pacific](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/women-warming-up-building-resilient-grassroots-feminist-movements-for-climate-justice-in-asia-pacific/) - Climate change disproportionately affects the Global South and women. The Asia-Pacific region is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, while a combination of patriarchal practices and global injustices mean women are at greater risk during a natural disaster and are more likely to experience the effects of natural resource degradation. This paper reports
- [A review of evidence of humanitarian cash transfer programming in urban areas](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-review-of-evidence-of-humanitarian-cash-transfer-programming-in-urban-areas/) - The scale of urbanisation, the nature of urban crises and urban vulnerability are the focus of a growing body of literature, as is the efficiency and effectiveness of cash transfer programming (CTP) – however, much experience of CTP to date has come from rural areas. This raises the question of what cash transfer programming can
- [Making development work: The quality of government approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-development-work-the-quality-of-government-approach/) - This report synthesizes the current knowledge on why some countries have developed into prosperous societies while others have not, and puts forward conclusions for development policy. The report summarises qualitative as well as quantitative studies that have shown that quality of governance (QoG) factors, such as control of corruption, the rule of law, and administrative
- [The impact of private sector internship and training on urban youth in Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-private-sector-internship-and-training-on-urban-youth-in-kenya/) - This paper evaluates the Kenya Private Sector Alliance (KEPSA) and the Government of Kenya with support from the World Bank’s Kenya Youth Empowerment Project (KYEP) training and internship pilot programme for vulnerable youths between the ages of 17 and 29 years old who were out of school and/or had no permanent job in the previous
- [Protracted displacement: uncertain paths to self-reliance in exile](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/protracted-displacement-uncertain-paths-to-self-reliance-in-exile/) - This report maps the global state of protracted displacement, examining patterns and trends in numbers, geographic spread and funding. It notes that at the end of 2014, half of all refugees had been in exile for over ten years. Displacement is increasingly an urban and dispersed phenomenon, with settled camps becoming the exception. Seven countries
- [The contribution of art and culture in peace and reconciliation processes in Asia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-contribution-of-art-and-culture-in-peace-and-reconciliation-processes-in-asia/) - How can art and culture contribute to peace and reconciliation processes in post-conflict societies? Through a series of case studies this CKU occasional paper highlights how art methodologies can provide the non-didactic, participatory tools necessary for building relations between groups and contributing to long-term peacebuilding processes. It recommends long-term investment in local community models that
- [Systems Thinking: An introduction for Oxfam programme staff](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/systems-thinking-an-introduction-for-oxfam-programme-staff/) - Systems thinking can be an important part of developing truly sustainable and transformative change. This introduction explains how a systems approach can be integrated within programmes and ways of working, and provides tools, case study examples and links to resources for further learning. It highlights the need for change at both a programme and organisational
- [Reaching boiling point: high school activism in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/reaching-boiling-point-high-school-activism-in-afghanistan/) - This research paper explores patterns of politicisation in Afghanistan’s high schools. It reveals how the ban on political activities within schools has had little impact, and explores how the reproduction of the political establishment within schools poses a potential risk to Afghanistan's future stability. It suggests two ways to address this: (1) revoking the ban in
- [Inclusive transitions framework](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/inclusive-transitions-framework/) - Transitions are the critical moments where fragile states can transform their social and political dynamics by pursuing more inclusive and cohesive practices. This publication argues that an inclusive approach offers the only realistic way to transform the relationships, institutions and dynamics that have troubled these countries. It draws on past experiences of conflict-affected countries to offer a
- [Women, business and the law 2016: Getting to equal](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/women-business-and-the-law-2016-getting-to-equal/) - Since 2009, Women, business and the law has collected data about legal restrictions on women’s entrepreneurship and employment in order to inform policy discussions and promote research on the linkages between the law and women’s economic opportunities. This report is the fourth in the series. The report includes data on seven indicators: accessing institutions, using
- [Men, masculinities, and changing power](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/men-masculinities-and-changing-power/) - The world is still far from achieving equality between women and men, but by many measures—including health, education, political participation, and income— it is closer to it than it was 20 years ago. This discussion paper draws on examples of various initiatives and research from around the world that illustrate global progress on men's engagement in
- [Migration and refugee governance in the Mediterranean: Europe and international organisations at a crossroads](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/migration-and-refugee-governance-in-the-mediterranean-europe-and-international-organisations-at-a-crossroads/) - Can international organisations (IOs) be a catalyst for change if Europe is unable to agree on a solution to the current Syrian refugee crisis and broader issues of the deadly migration into the region? The paper argues that the current crisis is not only a European but a transregional governance crisis and shows how IOs have
- [Social accountability in war zones – confronting local realities of law and justice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-accountability-in-war-zones-confronting-local-realities-of-law-and-justice/) - How are justice and social order administered and experienced in poor, politically fragile and conflict-affected environments? This paper argues that international policies on expanding access to justice or promoting rule of law are devised and implemented on the basis of norms and assumptions rather than on evidence and careful analysis. The development and framing of
- [Realising the right to a basic education in South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/realising-the-right-to-a-basic-education-in-south-africa-an-analysis-of-the-content-policy-effort-resource-allocation-and-enjoyment-of-the-constitutional-right-to-a-basic-education/) - Is South Africa meeting its constitutional and other legal obligations in making quality basic education accessible to all? This report finds that while progress has been made on access to basic education, quality and adequacy remain key issues that the government needs to address. This paper aims to guide the government in how to better fulfil these obligations and
- [Cash transfers and temptation goods: a review of global evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-transfers-and-temptation-goods-a-review-of-global-evidence/) - Cash transfers improve education and health outcomes and alleviate poverty in various contexts. This study finds that concerns that poor households will use transfers to buy alcohol, tobacco, or other "temptation goods" are unfounded. There is clear evidence that transfers are not consistently used for alcohol or tobacco consumption across different contexts and types of
- [Youth unemployment, education and political instability: evidence from selected developing countries 1991-2009](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/youth-unemployment-education-and-political-instability-evidence-from-selected-developing-countries-1991-2009/) - What is the relationship between youth unemployment and political instability? This working paper explores how youth unemployment is associated with political violence and armed conflict in developing countries. It suggests that youth unemployment is a symptom rather than a cause of political instability; there is a positive effect of youth unemployment on political violence but
- [The role of informal service providers in post-conflict reconstruction and state building](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-informal-service-providers-in-post-conflict-reconstruction-and-state-building/) - This chapter argues that current debates on state building are flawed because they employ a European and Weberian conception of state building premised on the conception of the state as a legal personality, an ordering power, and a set of formal arrangements that institutionalise power. This conception is not well adapted to service delivery and
- [Debunking the stereotype of the lazy welfare recipient: Evidence from cash transfer programs worldwide](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/debunking-the-stereotype-of-the-lazy-welfare-recipient-evidence-from-cash-transfer-programs-worldwide/) - This paper re-analyses the results of seven randomized controlled trials of government run cash transfer programs from six countries – Honduras, Indonesia, Morocco, Mexico (2 different programs), Nicaragua, and the Philippines – to examine the program impacts on labour supply. The re-analysis uses harmonized data definitions and empirical strategies to make the data as comparable
- [Speculating on crisis: the progressive disintegration of the Central African Republic’s political economy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/speculating-on-crisis-the-progressive-disintegration-of-the-central-african-republics-political-economy/) - What factors shape the Central African Republic's volatile present? This report explores the political and economic foundations that underpin the country’s progressive disintegration. It analyses the interlinking factors that have deepened historic divisions, stimulated armed groups and failed to adequately address the countries' continued instability. It calls for strategic and coordinated international interventions that focus on
- [After rape: comparing civilian and combatant perpetrated crime in northern Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/after-rape-comparing-civilian-and-combatant-perpetrated-crime-in-northern-uganda/) - How does the sequence of violence that women experience, before, during and after war relate to transitional justice approaches? This article compares rapes by combatants compared with rapes by civilians, both of which follow abductions intended to result in “marriage.” It calls attention to typically unacknowledged commonalities between the two forms of abduction and illustrates
- [Drivers of violent extremism: hypotheses and literature review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/drivers-of-violent-extremism-hypotheses-and-literature-review/) - This review analyses the substantial academic literature on what causes violent extremism. It examines the 17 hypotheses discussed in the 2008 DFID paper ‘Drivers of Violent Extremism’, and summarises the strength of the evidence on each. It notes that an alignment of situational, social-cultural and individual factors at the macro, meso and micro levels is
- [Strategy testing: an innovative approach to monitoring highly flexible aid programs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strategy-testing-an-innovative-approach-to-monitoring-highly-flexible-aid-programs/) - How can we develop a rigorous and meaningful monitoring system that will support, rather than hinder, a flexible, adaptive programme approach? This paper outlines the Strategy Testing (ST) approach The Asia Foundation has developed in response to this question. It finds that ST is a promising monitoring approach, contributing to broader efforts to reorient development assistance
- [‘Leave no one behind’: Gender, sexuality and the Sustainable Development Goals](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/leave-no-one-behind-gender-sexuality-and-the-sustainable-development-goals/) - This report provides evidence on the impact of excluding populations on the basis of their sexual orientation or gender identity and expression (SOGIE). It argues that unless deliberate steps are taken by international and national development actors to address this exclusion, the explicit global commitment in the SDGs to eradicate inequality for all people will
- [The national risk atlas of Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-national-risk-atlas-of-rwanda/) - Rwanda has experienced a growing number of disasters in recent years, including the 2011 landslides and the 2014 drought. This comprehensive disaster risk profile report finds that Rwanda is strongly susceptible to natural disasters and offers recommendations to ensure measures are in place to mitigate risk, and to enhance disaster risk assessment in the future. The
- [World disasters report 2015: Focus on local actors, the key to humanitarian effectiveness.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/world-disasters-report-2015-focus-on-local-actors-the-key-to-humanitarian-effectiveness/) - The importance of local actors to humanitarian action is increasingly recognised. However, they struggle to attract the funding and support they need. This report calls for more support for the role of local actors, without transferring the whole responsibility of responding to large scale disasters to them. Key Findings Local actors often have access to population groups that
- [Fossil fuels are dead, long live fossil fuels: Botswana’s options for economic diversification.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fossil-fuels-are-dead-long-live-fossil-fuels-botswanas-options-for-economic-diversification/) - Botswana is at a critical historical juncture. It has enjoyed a stable democracy since 1965 and strong, quality economic growth for the last few decades. However, the diamond revenues on which the country depends are likely to decline in the near future. This report examines how Botswana can best harness it's ample fossil fuel supply
- [Beyond dichotomy: recognising and reconciling legal pluralism in Mali.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beyond-dichotomy-recognising-and-reconciling-legal-pluralism-in-mali/) - The 2012 conflict in Mali highlighted the urgent need to address a broader crisis of governance - a defective provision of justice. This report examines how the provision of justice in Mali could form a key part of a broad-based strategy to help the country regain the status of emerging democracy which had won it
- [The scope, role and impact of publicly supported private finance on development and poverty reduction in Africa: the case of Rwanda and Zambia.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-scope-role-and-impact-of-publicly-supported-private-finance-on-development-and-poverty-reduction-in-africa-the-case-of-rwanda-and-zambia/) - Support from development finance institutions (DFIs) and donor governments to the private sector in developing countries has increased in the last decade. This study explores the scope, role and impact of publicly supported private finance (PSPF) in Rwanda and Zambia between 2000 and 2013. It argues that there is need for Zambia and Rwanda to develop and
- [Private sector development for poverty reduction: opportunities and challenges for Norwegian development aid](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/private-sector-development-for-poverty-reduction-opportunities-and-challenges-for-norwegian-development-aid/) - What are the most appropriate private sector development (PSD) interventions for poverty reduction? PSD is very demanding – attracting controversy and requiring highly competent implementing institutions - nevertheless, it remains popular among policy makers. Focusing on areas under the Norad PSD mandate, this paper explores the challenges and opportunities of different interventions. It recommends a
- [Improving education outcomes by linking payments to results: an assessment of disbursement-linked indicators in five results-based approaches.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/improving-education-outcomes-by-linking-payments-to-results-an-assessment-of-disbursement-linked-indicators-in-five-results-based-approaches/) - What are good indicators and how can they be selected? While results-based approaches are gaining popularity with donors and partner countries, there remains a question of whether they deliver higher returns than traditional aid modalities. This paper argues that the quality of indicators may determine the success of results-based approaches; the link between disbursement of
- [Sticks or carrots? Conditional cash transfers and their effect on child abuse and neglect.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/sticks-or-carrots-conditional-cash-transfers-and-their-effect-on-child-abuse-and-neglect/) - Despite a growing body of evidence on conditional cash transfers (CCTs) that supports claims of positive outcomes for households and children, there has been little investigation into unintended consequences and the potential for perverse incentives may negatively affect children or adults. This paper provides an overview of these issues and recommends that conditionalities should undergo
- [What lies beneath? A critical assessment of PPPs and their impact on sustainable development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-lies-beneath-a-critical-assessment-of-ppps-and-their-impact-on-sustainable-development/) - Donor governments and financial institutions, such as the World Bank, are increasingly promoting public-private partnerships (PPPs), as a way to finance development projects. This report looks at the empirical and theoretical evidence on the nature and impact of PPPs based on experiences in Tanzania and Peru to assess whether they deliver on their promises. The report has
- [Toward better global poverty measures](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/toward-better-global-poverty-measures/) - While much progress has been made over the last 25 years in measuring global poverty, a number of challenges remain. This paper discusses some current issues that are specific to global poverty monitoring. It argues that improving global poverty measures is important to public knowledge, and helps to inform the work of development agencies, in
- [Evaluation of the strategy for support via Swedish civil society organisations 2010-2014](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/evaluation-of-the-strategy-for-support-via-swedish-civil-society-organisations-2010-2014/) - In what ways has Swedish support to civil society actors in developing countries enabled poor and discriminated people to improve their living conditions and quality of life? This evaluation report shares a range of internal and external factors that have contributed to the effectiveness of Sida's civil society support strategy via Swedish CSOs 2010-2014 .
- [Child-sensitive social protection in Fiji: Assessment of the care and protection allowance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/child-sensitive-social-protection-in-fiji-assessment-of-the-care-and-protection-allowance/) - Despite Fiji’s status as a middle-income country, a high proportion of children live in poor and income-insecure families. This report reviews the Department of Social Welfare’s Care & Protection Allowance, highlighting that its current impact is limited by low coverage and the exclusion of beneficiaries from receiving other social security. The report recommends extending the Allowance’s
- [Beyond fragility and inequity: Women's experiences of the economic dimensions of domestic violence in Timor-Leste](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beyond-fragility-and-inequality-womens-experiences-of-the-economic-dimensions-of-domestic-violence-in-timor-leste/) - This report challenges assumptions about violence against women and highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of the economic dimensions of domestic violence. It concludes with a call for further research into women’s creativity and determination in economic resilience post-separation. The report consists of primary data collected in three districts in the country –
- [A new climate for peace: Taking action on climate and fragility](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-new-climate-for-peace-taking-action-on-climate-and-fragility/) - This independent report commissioned by members of the G7 calls for action on climate and fragility risk. It highlights risks and policy gaps that pose serious threats to the stability of states and societies in three key sectors: climate change adaptation; development and humanitarian aid; and peacebuilding. The report suggests concrete action from G7 member countries
- [Refugee innovation: Humanitarian innovation that starts with communities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/refugee-innovation-humanitarian-innovation-that-starts-with-communities/) - How can people’s own creativity and ideas be supported rather than undermined by expensive ‘top-down’ innovations brought in from the developed world? This paper highlights how people engage in creative problem-solving in the most challenging environments and calls for a more people-centred approach to humanitarian innovation. Case studies illustrate how people’s creativity and ideas are
- [Political economy of citizenship regimes: Tax in India and Brazil](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/political-economy-of-citizenship-regimes-tax-in-india-and-brazil/) - Both Brazil and India have deepened their democracies over recent years, but with different impacts on state capacity. This paper evaluates changes to state capacity in both countries by looking at the political economy of citizenship regimes and tax. It finds that the distinct evolution of revenues and other policies reflects changes in each country’s citizenship
- [Is child work detrimental to the educational achievement of children?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-child-work-detrimental-to-the-educational-achievement-of-children/) - To what extent does child work have an effect on education? This study adds value to the previous work done by Young Lives in Ethiopia by investigating the causal relationship between child work and education. It finds that child work has an adverse effect on children's educational achievement, and suggests that the Government of Ethiopia
- [The state-private interface in public service provision](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-state-private-interface-in-public-service-provision/) - Political theory sets out a strong case for the state to play a major role in public service provision. Yet services are often provided by a range of state and non-state actors as well as by collaborative partnerships. This paper surveys the literature, seeking to map arrangements in developing countries and to understand the politics of
- [Applied research concerning inclusion of persons with disabilities in systems of social protection -  quantitative research report (Tanzania)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/applied-research-concerning-inclusion-of-persons-with-disabilities-in-systems-of-social-protection-quantitative-research-report-tanzania/) - This quantitative study aims to assess the need for inclusion in social protection among persons with disabilities compared to those without, within three districts in Tanzania. It finds that the need for health insurance and other social protection schemes among persons with disabilities was not matched by higher, and suggests that the expansion of social
- [Migration trends across the Mediterranean: Connecting the dots](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/migration-trends-across-the-mediterranean-connecting-the-dots/) - Who are the men and women, and increasingly children, who make the journey from their home countries across vast expanses of desert and eventually across the sea? What are the triggers, patterns, and push and pull factors shaping their decisions? This report draws on unique and in-depth qualitative research conducted in countries of the southern and
- [Normative frameworks’ role in addressing gender-based violence in disaster settings](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/normative-frameworks-role-in-addressing-gender-based-violence-in-disaster-settings/) - How do national and international legal frameworks address gender-based violence (GBV) in disaster settings? It highlights that while violence against women should be prevented and addressed according to numerous international instruments, the aftermath of disasters often increases women’s vulnerability to GBV. Recommendations include greater participation by women in management and increased gender awareness in disaster-relief
- [Theories of Change: Time for a radical approach to learning in development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/theories-of-change-time-for-a-radical-approach-to-learning-in-development/) - A Theory of Change approach demands a radical shift towards more and better learning in development thinking and practice. This paper outlines growing and diverse ways in which Theory of Change approaches are understood, and highlights four key principles. Recognising the need not to obsess over the latest tool/buzzword, it calls for a shift towards learning as
- [Doing cash differently: how cash transfers can transform humanitarian aid](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/doing-cash-differently-how-cash-transfers-can-transform-humanitarian-aid/) - The nature of humanitarian crises is changing. More people are in need and for longer. This report shows why giving aid directly in the form of cash is often a highly effective way to reduce suffering and to make limited humanitarian aid budgets go further. The report calls for shifts in how cash transfers are
- [Applied research concerning inclusion of persons with disabilities in systems of social protection: Qualitative research report (Tanzania)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/applied-research-concerning-inclusion-of-persons-with-disabilities-in-systems-of-social-protection-qualitative-research-report-tanzania/) - This report presents and analyses data obtained during qualitative interviews, which sought to understand the perceptions and experiences of persons with disabilities and the extent to which existing social protection programmes in Tanzania are inclusive of persons with disabilities. It finds that there is an absence of specific targeted efforted to enrol or collect data
- [Demographic perspectives on female genital mutilation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/demographic-perspectives-on-female-genital-mutilation/) - In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the first-ever resolution against FGM, calling for intensified global efforts to eliminate it. This paper seeks to provide a new perspective by factoring in demographic dynamics analysis. It presents data from a number of countries across Africa and Asia including: current levels of FGM; the main differences according
- [Projecting progress: reaching the SDGs by 2030](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/projecting-progress-reaching-the-sdgs-by-2030/) - How much more effort will be needed to reach the new Sustainable Development Goals? At the time when the focus moves from negotiation to implementation, this paper gathers the best available global projections and finds that unless significant changes are made to how we approach them, the 17 goals will not be met. A call
- [Global humanitarian assistance report 2015](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/global-humanitarian-assistance-report-2015/) - The spotlight is on financing to address crisis, vulnerability and risk as never before. This report provides the evidence to better understand how to meet the urgent challenge of meeting rising humanitarian needs with limited resources, and to inform the number of global processes taking place in 2015 and 2016 including Financing for Development and the
- [Mechanisms underpinning interventions to reduce sexual violence in armed conflict: a realist-informed systematic review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mechanisms-underpinning-interventions-to-reduce-sexual-violence-in-armed-conflict-a-realist-informed-systematic-review/) - This literature review aims to identify both the mechanisms that underpin successful intervention and the contextual factors those mechanisms require. It identifies the important potential of building in mechanisms involving community engagement, awareness of responses and safe reporting provisions. The realist approach is an exploratory and theory-driven review method. It takes into account contextual factors
- [Getting textbooks to every child in Sub-Saharan Africa: Strategies for addressing the high cost and low](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/getting-textbooks-to-every-child-in-sub-saharan-africa-strategies-for-addressing-the-high-cost-and-low/) - Despite extensive technical support and funding from external partners, making textbooks affordable and available to students remains an elusive objective for most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study asks why it has been so hard to improve textbook provision comparative to other regions, exploring the cost and financial barriers. Recognising that progress has been hampered
- [The closing space challenge: how are funders responding?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-closing-space-challenge-how-are-funders-responding/) - How is the international aid community responding to the perceived major threat to Western support for civil society development in many parts of the world? This paper looks at how Western funders are responding to closing civil society space measures, highlighting the need for more in-depth research, and increased collaboration between bilaterals, multilaterals and private funders
- [Addressing gender in impact evaluation: what should be considered?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/addressing-gender-in-impact-evaluation-what-should-be-considered/) - This paper guides development practitioners and evaluators in how to assess the way in which development interventions engage with gender, whether recognised or not, and their impact. It suggests that understanding gender as a process of judgement and value related to stereotypes and norms, rather than a category, underpins the collection of meaningful data on gender-related
- [Resource discovery and conflict in Africa: what do the data show?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/resource-discovery-and-conflict-in-africa-what-do-the-data-show/) - Africa is often viewed as the prime location for natural resource driven conflict. The volume of research on this topic is sizeable. Yet establishing causality remains a challenge. This paper uses geocoded data on oil and mineral discoveries to study the effect of natural resources on conflict at the local level (1946-2008). It seeks to fill
- [Governance and inequality: Benchmarking and interpreting South Africa’s evolving political settlement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/governance-and-inequality-benchmarking-and-interpreting-south-africas-evolving-political-settlement/) - Has South Africa’s political settlement provided a constructive platform for successfully addressing the country’s deep-seated economic challenges in an inclusive way? This paper argues that the country’s stark inequality is a major cause of the increased pressure on maintaining its political settlement. It re-examines the foundations of South Africa’s democracy in an attempt to understand
- [Positive Peace report 2015](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/positive-peace-report-2015/) - This report is a comprehensive summary of the concept of Positive Peace - an optimal environment under which human potential can flourish or, the attitudes, institutions and structures which create and sustain peaceful societies - and its eight dimensions. It aims to address the lack of guidance on conceptualising, measuring and supporting interdependent key factors that promote peace
- [Building resilience in Nepal through public-private partnerships](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/building-resilience-in-nepal-through-public-private-partnerships/) - The extent and complexity of the natural risks Nepal faces mean that a multi-stakeholder approach to resilience is vital. How can we build on, and leverage, the capabilities and capacities for resilience in the public and private sectors, as well as civil society? This use case assesses how buildings and key parts of the economy,
- [Disability inclusion in the voter registration processes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disability-inclusion-in-the-voter-registration-processes/) - Despite a number of laws protecting people with disabilities, elections in Cambodia are not yet inclusive. This report identifies challenges, good practice and steps that Cambodia's government, election administrators and civil society can take to protect the political rights of persons with disabilities. It calls for the NEC to address the challenges faced by person
- [The state of corruption: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-state-of-corruption-armenia-azerbaijan-georgia-moldova-and-ukraine/) - This report presents the results of research undertaken by Transparency International on corruption in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. It highlights promising developments in the field of anti-corruption, but also notes how the capture of important institutions by powerful interests is seriously undermining the effective enforcement of these laws. Transparency International national chapters conducted
- [Humanitarian broadcasting in emergencies: A synthesis of evaluation findings](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/humanitarian-broadcasting-in-emergencies-a-synthesis-of-evaluation-findings/) - What does and does not work in using communication to help people respond to and recover from disaster? This research report aims to address the lack of systematic learning around humanitarian broadcasting in emergencies using insights from BBC Media Action’s own monitoring and evaluations of four specific case studies. It finds that mass communication programming
- [The power of parity: How advancing women's equality can add $12 trillion to global growth](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-power-of-parity-how-advancing-womens-equality-can-add-12-trillion-to-global-growth/) - If women participated in the economy identically to men what would global GDP look like? This report explores the economic potential available if the global gender gap were to be closed, and highlights the role of new regional and global coalitions between policy-makers, non-governmental actors, and private-sector leaders to drive this change. The report maps 15
- [State of the world's volunteerism report 2015](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-of-the-worlds-volunteerism-report-2015/) - Volunteerism provides a key channel for the successful implementation of a more inclusive future development agenda advocated by the SDGs. The report analyses the relationship between volunteerism and governance and some of the core governance issues amenable to volunteer action locally, nationally and globally. It argues that volunteerism is an additional resource and vehicle for
- [We want to learn about good love: Findings from a qualitative study assessing the links between comprehensive sexuality education and violence against women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/we-want-to-learn-about-good-love-findings-from-a-qualitative-study-assessing-the-links-between-comprehensive-sexuality-education-and-violence-against-women-and-girls/) - Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) can empower young people to make informed, autonomous decisions regarding their current and future relationships. This report finds compelling evidence that CSE is both part of a quality education and a holistic approach to prevent VAWG. However, more evidence on what works in changing attitudes on gender equality and reducing VAWG
- [Sustainable refugee return: triggers, constraints and lessons on addressing the development challenges of forced displacement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/sustainable-refugee-return-triggers-constraints-and-lessons-on-addressing-the-development-challenges-of-forced-displacement/) - What are the conditions that influence decisions by refugees in protracted displacement on returning home? The study illustrates the complex contexts within which refugee return, and international assistance with refugee return and reintegration, take place. It argues that the overarching framework envisaged by the UNHCR has not been fully realised, and that there needs to
- [The interplay between war and human rights](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-interplay-between-war-and-human-rights/) - Developing useful policy responses to conflict and human rights requires an understanding of conflict dynamics and conflict resolution as well as international human rights and humanitarian law. This chapter introduces key issues and concepts in the complex relationship between war and human rights, and highlights the varying ways that human rights violations and conflict they interact. It highlights
- [Users' Guide on Measuring Fragility](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/users-guide-on-measuring-fragility/) - This Users’ Guide on Measuring Fragility presents a comparative analysis of 11 cross-country fragility indices. It assesses their conceptual premises, methodological approach and possible uses. The interest in understanding and predicting situations of fragility has grown exponentially amongst research and policy communities in the last years, in parallel to debates around poor governance performance, development
- [Power, Politics, and Change: How International Actors Assess Local Context](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/power-politics-and-change-how-international-actors-assess-local-context/) - Do assessments actually affect decision making, planning and programming? This report presents observations from an informal analysis of conflict, governance, and fragility/stability assessment tools developed by bilateral and multilateral actors. Use of assessments is affected by clarity of purpose, timing, incentives, staff competencies and linking assessment into a broader strategy. It is important to be
- [Measuring the Impact and Value for Money of Governance Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/measuring-the-impact-and-value-for-money-of-governance-programmes/) - How can value for money best be measured in governance and conflict programming? This study reviews options for a VFM approach in relation to governance programmes, including those in conflict-affected and failed states, for the UK's Department for International Development. VFM involves examining economy, efficiency and effectiveness, identifying the links between them and drawing conclusions
- [Success Stories from 'Emerging Africa'](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/success-stories-from-emerging-africa/) - What changes have occurred among sub-Saharan African nations since the mid-1990s? This essay highlights 17 African countries that have achieved dramatic improvements in economic growth, poverty reduction and political accountability. Another six 'threshold' countries have experienced promising change. The turnaround was ignited by a combination of economic reform and political change. While the countries of
- [Time to Kill: The Impact of Election Timing on Post-Conflict Stability](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/time-to-kill-the-impact-of-election-timing-on-post-conflict-stability/) - This paper conducts a quantitative analysis of all civil wars ending in the post-World War II period to examine the impact of election timing on post-conflict stability. The paper argues that holding elections soon after a civil war ends generally increases the likelihood of renewed fighting, but that favourable conditions, including decisive victories, demobilisation, peacekeeping,
- [Corruption Perceptions Index 2013](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/corruption-perceptions-index-2013/) - How bad is corruption, and what can be done? Based on expert opinion, the Corruption Perceptions Index 2013 covers 177 countries. While a handful perform well, not one country gets a perfect score. More than two-thirds score less than 50. The need for greater accountability is clear, and leaders cannot look the other way. But
- [UN Convention against Corruption: Progress Report 2013](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/un-convention-against-corruption-progress-report-2013/) - The UN Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) requires countries to report back on corruption every five years. This report provides an overview of the country review process after its first three years of implementation. It highlights areas for improvement in the process, including follow-up on country reviews, delays, transparency, increasing NGO participation, and quality of reviews.
- [The Fragility Spectrum. Note on the g7+ Fragility Spectrum](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-fragility-spectrum-note-on-the-g7-fragility-spectrum/) - This note sets out the rationale and benefits of a ‘spectrum approach’ to fragility, and the purpose and use of country-specific fragility spectrums and indicators (developed through fragility assessments). It also discusses the utility of a consolidated fragility spectrum and a shared menu of indicators. The note is the result of the g7+ discussion on
- [Corruption Perceptions Index 2014](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/corruption-perceptions-index-2014/) - How bad is corruption, and what can be done? Based on expert opinion, the Corruption Perceptions Index 2014 covers 175 countries. Not one single country gets a perfect score and more than two-thirds score below 50, on a scale from 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (very clean). A poor score is likely a sign of
- [Escaping Capability Traps through Problem Driven Iterative Adaptation (PDIA)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/escaping-capability-traps-through-problem-driven-iterative-adaptation-pdia/) - This paper argues that many reform initiatives in developing countries fail to achieve sustained improvements in performance because governments and organisations pretend to reform by changing what policies or organisations look like rather than what they actually do. The flow of development resources and legitimacy without demonstrated improvements in performance undermines the impetus for effective
- [Rewards for High Public Offices and the Quality of Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rewards-for-high-public-offices-and-the-quality-of-governance-in-sub-saharan-africa/) - Increasingly, setting the institutional arrangements for remunerating high public officeholders (HPOs) is seen as a central design issue for improving governance. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), recent efforts to review and revise national constitutions and/or introduce new government structures have brought this issue to the fore. Changes in these “grand institutions” provide rare opportunities to devise
- [Political settlements and the politics of inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/political-settlements-and-the-politics-of-inclusion/) - What are political settlements and why are they now at the centre of donor efforts to foster more peaceful and effective states and societies? This paper draws on academic and grey literature to examine political settlements and processes of state formation and political, social and economic transformation. Analysing available research, the paper finds that, at
- [Local Ownership of Security Sector Reform: A Guide for Donors](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/local-ownership-of-security-sector-reform-a-guide-for-donors/) - Local ownership is imperative for successful security sector reform (SSR), although the principle is frequently breached in practice. This paper, commissioned by the UK Government’s Global Conflict Prevention Pool, aims to contribute to operationalising donors’ policy commitment to local ownership of SSR. Incorporating planning and diagnostic tools, it argues that SSR programmes must be flexible
- [Investigative Journalism and Scandal Reporting in the Nigerian Press](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/investigative-journalism-and-scandal-reporting-in-the-nigerian-press/) - To what extent is investigative journalism used to uncover allegations of corruption in Nigeria? What are its key challenges? This article from Ecquid Novi: African Journalism Studies uses interviews with journalists to explore the use of investigative journalism in Nigeria. While the press can help to strengthen government institutions, especially through its watchdog role, significant
- [Newspapers in Sierra Leone: A Case Study of Conditions for Print Journalism in a Postconflict Society](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/newspapers-in-sierra-leone-a-case-study-of-conditions-for-print-journalism-in-a-postconflict-society/) - What are the challenges of democratic communication in developing countries? What can be learned from print journalism in Sierra Leone? This article from Ecquid Novi: African Journalism Studies analyses the conditions of the newspaper industry in Sierra Leone since the end of civil war. It highlights key difficulties including a lack of financial, technological and
- [Statebuilding without Nation-building? Legitimacy, State Failure and the Limits of the Institutionalist Approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/statebuilding-without-nation-building-legitimacy-state-failure-and-the-limits-of-the-institutionalist-approach/) - What is state collapse and how should external actors address it? This essay reviews the literature, outlining the 'institutional' and 'legitimacy' approaches to the state and statebuilding that emerge. It argues that to be effective, statebuilding needs to consider both the efficiency of state institutions and their legitimacy, (and in terms of the latter, the
- [Transforming Images: Reimagining Women's Work Through Participatory Video](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transforming-images-reimagining-womens-work-through-participatory-video/) - How can participatory media support empowerment, dialogue and community building? This study of a participatory video workshop involving rural women in Fiji found that women integrated local norms and practices in their video production. They used social capital – relationships and social networks – as a key element. Women presented themselves as active citizens who
- [CDD in post-conflict and conflict-affected areas: Experiences from East Asia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cdd-in-post-conflict-and-conflict-affected-areas-experiences-from-east-asia/) - How successful have community-driven development programmes (CDD) in conflict-affected and post-conflict areas of the East Asia and Pacific region been? This paper briefly reviews the World Bank’s experience, exploring which mechanisms worked and what factors affected performance. It finds that CDD projects have has positive impacts on welfare in a range of conflict environments, but they must
- [From Conflict Analysis to Peacebuilding Impact: Lessons from the People's Peacemaking Perspectives Project](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/from-conflict-analysis-to-peacebuilding-impact-lessons-from-the-peoples-peacemaking-perspectives-project/) - This project used participatory approaches to produce analyses of 18 conflict situations around the world. Its final report recommends that, to use locally-led analysis more consistently and effectively, donors could: pay more attention to the process of analysis; encourage analysis to focus on potential solutions, not just describe the problem; prioritise the translation of analysis
- [Innovative aid instruments and flexible financing: providing better support to fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/innovative-aid-instruments-and-flexible-financing-providing-better-support-to-fragile-states/) - This paper presents evidence, analysis and evaluation of the use of aid instruments in fragile states, based on a literature review and questionnaire responses from members of the OECD International Dialogue on Peacebuilding and Statebuilding Working Group on Aid Instruments. It highlights the importance of factors including: a mix of aid instruments (based on context);
- [Financing in Crisis? Making humanitarian finance fit for the future](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/financing-in-crisis-making-humanitarian-finance-fit-for-the-future/) - This paper expands on the Future Humanitarian Financing initiative’s recommendations about how to close the humanitarian funding gap. It summarises good practices by DAC members and attempts to find solutions to common challenges: Predictable funding for predicable costs. Funding for longer-term – protracted – crises that helps boost the resilience of crisis-affected communities; going beyond
- [State-level effects of transitional justice: what do we know?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-level-effects-of-transitional-justice-what-do-we-know/) - Does transitional justice (TJ) strengthen or threaten societal peace in transitional countries? This review of recent scholarship finds a dearth of reliable evidence of TJ’s effects on institutions and policy processes at the state-level – positive or negative – despite strong claims by scholars and practitioners. It calls for more systematic and comparative analysis of the
- [Effects of invisibility: in search of the 'economic' in transitional justice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/effects-of-invisibility-in-search-of-the-economic-in-transitional-justice/) - This article argues that the field of transitional justice (TJ) has historically excluded issues of economic inequality, structural violence, redistribution and development. It argues that transitional justice mechanisms are not neutral and the invisibility of economics within these processes contributes to maintaining a narrative wherein inequality is a question of time or development rather than
- [Growing up in Ethiopia and Andhra Pradesh: The impact of social protection schemes on girl's roles and responsibilities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/growing-up-in-ethiopia-and-andhra-pradesh-the-impact-of-social-protection-schemes-on-girls-roles-and-responsibilities/) - Contrary to popular understanding, there is little evidence that increasing participation in social protection enhances the development of girls in participating households. What happens to girls’ roles and responsibilities when households participate in social protection schemes in rural Ethiopia and Andhra Pradesh? This article argues that effects cannot be answered with a methodology that considers
- [Deliberation and development: Rethinking the role of voice and collective action in unequal societies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/deliberation-and-development-rethinking-the-role-of-voice-and-collective-action-in-unequal-societies/) - Deliberation is the process by which a group of people, each with equal voice, can - via a process of discussion and debate - reach an agreement. This edited book aims to do two things: rethink the role of deliberation in development and demonstrate that taking deliberation seriously calls for a different approach to both
- [A governance practitioner's notebook: Alternative ideas and approaches](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-governance-practitioners-notebook-alternative-ideas-and-approaches/) - This resource aims to stimulate thinking and debate. It provides briefings by a wide range of experts on politics, public sector reform and stakeholder engagement. The book charts the evolution of donor thinking and practice, highlighting current challenges and offering insights into new ways of working. It stresses the golden rule that supporting governance reform
- [States of Fragility 2015: Meeting Post-2015 Ambitions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/states-of-fragility-2015-meeting-post-2015-ambitions/) - This report offers a new tool for assessing fragility that is more comprehensive than the traditional single categorisation of “fragile states”, and recognises the diversity of risks and vulnerabilities that lead to fragility. It identifies countries the most vulnerable in five dimensions of risk and vulnerability linked to fragility, and asks how likely they are
- [Remittances to Syria: What works, where and how](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/remittances-to-syria-what-works-where-and-how/) - The opportunities for cash transfers to enable projects that will better meet emergency and post-emergency needs are of paramount importance where access is severely curtailed. This study seeks to explore the potential for cash transfer programming as a key modality for humanitarian actors to meet the needs of vulnerable populations inside Syria. It establishes that
- [Theorising age and generation in development: A relational approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/theorising-age-and-generation-in-development-a-relational-approach/) - Despite young people’s presence as targets of development interventions and as a sub-field within wider developmental concerns, generational perspectives pertaining to young people remain too often absent. This introduction to a special issue outlines the analytical approach of ‘generationing’ development. It argues that life phases matter and seeks to explore how young people’s agency shapes
- [Challenging empowerment: AIDS-affected southern African children and the need for a multi-level relational approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/challenging-empowerment-aids-affected-southern-african-children-and-the-need-for-a-multi-level-relational-approach/) - Is ‘empowerment’ a helpful approach to addressing problems faced by marginalised children? This paper argues that empowerment, when envisaged as individual self-transformation and increased capacity to act independently, offers little basis for progressive change. Instead it calls for a relational approach that will transform power relationships at multiple levels. This paper draws on scholarship on
- [Measuring Cultural Exclusion through Participation in Cultural Life](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/measuring-cultural-exclusion-through-participation-in-cultural-life/) - What indicators should be used to measure individuals’ access to cultural rights? How can a strengthening of cultural life contribute to social inclusion and participation? This paper from the Interarts Foundation looks at three geographically diverse consultations on cultural inclusion to identify the key cultural rights priorities for communities worldwide. It argues that an enabling
- [The political economy of education systems in conflict-affected contexts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-political-economy-of-education-systems-in-conflict-affected-contexts/) - This rigorous literature review offers insights into the global, national and local governance of education systems in conflict-affected contexts. It finds that the literature is nascent, fragmented and partial, yet provides rich and complex insights into the challenges of improving education systems in conflict-affected contexts. The review concludes with a theory of change that seeks to
- [The security gap in Syria: Individual and collective security in 'rebel-held' territories](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-security-gap-in-syria-individual-and-collective-security-in-rebel-held-territories/) - This paper examines security in Syria through the conceptual lens of the security gap. It compares the security situation in so-called ‘rebel-held’ areas of Syria where alternative governance structures have emerged, and areas dominated by the Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD). It argues that security and safety are strongly influenced by authority formation and the
- [Capacities for institutional innovation: A complexity perspective](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/capacities-for-institutional-innovation-a-complexity-perspective/) - How can institutional innovation be catalysed? This paper argues that societies' overall learning capacities need to be enhanced in ways that enable greater responsiveness and resilience to emerging risks. To change institutions, 'soft' capacities are needed: communication, trust-building, diplomacy, networking, making sense of messy social situations, political advocacy and leadership. Specifically, it is important to
- [INEE Guidance Note on Conflict Sensitive Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/inee-guidance-note-on-conflict-sensitive-education/) - This INEE Guidance Note on Conflict Sensitive Education aims to contribute a reference tool for education practitioners and policy makers on how to provide education in ways that are conflict sensitive. The strategies mentioned are designed to provoke thought rather than indicate prescriptive measures, as one of the keys to conflict sensitivity is adaptation to
- [Report of the Secretary-General on Women, Peace and Security](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/report-of-the-secretary-general-on-women-peace-and-security/) - This is the Secretary General’s 2013 report (S/2013/525) on Women, Peace and Security (WPS). It notes there were measurable advances in all areas of the women, peace and security agenda. It stresses numerous good practices while also outlining several deficits, notably lack of women’s leadership, poor provision of resources necessary for addressing women’s rights and
- [Transitioning Fragile States: A Sequencing Approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transitioning-fragile-states-a-sequencing-approach/) - This article examining case studies of three types of fragile states: those that are stuck in a fragility trap, those that have exited fragility and are now emergent and stabilised, and those that have moved in and out of fragility—all between 1980 and 2010. The study was premised on the idea that state fragility is
- [Practical Approaches to Theories of Change in Conflict, Security, and Justice Programmes: Part II: Using Theories of Change in Monitoring and Evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/practical-approaches-to-theories-of-change-in-conflict-security-and-justice-programmes-part-ii-using-theories-of-change-in-monitoring-and-evaluation/) - The goal of this document is to improve the effectiveness of DFID programmes and the measurement of their impacts by providing DFID Advisers with the practical skills to develop high quality theories of change, to understand the role they play in programme design and assessment. It is intended for DFID advisors to more clearly and
- [Practical Approaches to Theories of Change in Conflict, Security & Justice Programmes: Part I: What are they, different types, how to develop and use them](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/practical-approaches-to-theories-of-changein-conflict-security-justiceprogrammes-part-i-what-are-they-different-types-how-to-develop-and-use-them/) - This document aims to improve the effectiveness of DFID programmes and the measurement of their impacts by providing DFID Advisers with the practical skills to develop high quality theories of change, and to understand the role they play in programme design and assessment. It is intended for DFID advisors to more clearly and explicitly articulate
- [Medellín’s Biblioteca España: Progress in Unlikely Places](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/medellins-biblioteca-espana-progress-in-unlikely-places/) - This paper explores whether improvements in state capacity and infrastructure at the local level can have a broad impact in poor and violent communities. It focuses on public works project in the city Medellín, Colombia. The survey results reveal that citizens of comunas Popular and Santa Cruz, which are served by the library park Biblioteca
- [Crime and conflict: the new challenge for peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/crime-and-conflict-the-new-challenge-for-peacebuilding/) - This report suggests that framing violent conflict as limited to war and civil war restricts our ability to address it: the approaches and lens of peacebuilding can enrich efforts to reduce armed violence and fragility linked to organised crime. It notes that this approach has not been widely tested, but that when it has, results
- [Security and Justice: Towards Politically Informed Programming](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/security-and-justice-towards-politically-informed-programming/) - There is a consensus amongst academics and practitioners that security and justice are intrinsically political. When providing assistance in this sector, donors are engaging with the fundamentally political nature of the state. This paper therefore explores what the literature tells us about the following questions: How do politics and power intersect with the provision of
- [Searching for Lasting Peace: Population-Based Survey on Perceptions and Attitudes about Peace, Security and Justice in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/searching-for-lasting-peace-population-based-survey-on-perceptions-and-attitudes-about-peace-security-and-justice-in-eastern-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/) - This report presents the results of a mixed-methods study conducted in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) between November and December 2013, to assess the population’s perceptions, knowledge, and attitudes about peace, security and justice. The study included a survey of 5,166 randomly selected adult residents, to provide results that are representative of the
- [Counter-terrorism laws and regulations: what aid agencies need to know](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/counter-terrorism-laws-and-regulations-what-aid-agencies-need-to-know/) - What are the practical and legal consequences of counterterrorism laws for humanitarian action? This paper provides an overview of some of the most salient questions that humanitarian actors are grappling with in planning effective, principled, and lawful operations in high-risk environments. It highlights several factors which seem to indicate significant and possibly permanent shifts in major
- [Changing discriminatory norms affecting adolescent girls through communication activities - A review of evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/changing-discriminatory-norms-affecting-adolescent-girls-through-communication-activities-a-review-of-evidence/) - This report presents findings from a review of evidence on the effectiveness of communications programmes for changing norms affecting adolescent girls in low- and middle-income countries. The studies in this review all examined communications initiatives that aimed to change norms on gender issues, reported on certain areas of adolescent girls’ wellbeing or included adolescent girls
- [2013/4 Education for All Global Monitoring Report: Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/20134-education-for-all-global-monitoring-report-teaching-and-learning-achieving-quality-for-all/) - This Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report underlines the fact that people in the most marginalised groups have continued to be denied opportunities for education over the decade. It argues for an accelerated progress in the final stages of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and proposes a robust global post-2015 education framework to tackle
- [Girls' Education and Gender Equality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/girls-education-and-gender-equality/) - This literature review investigates the kind of interventions that can help expand and improve girls’ education and gender equality. All relevant literature published since 1991 was identified and systematically reviewed by a team of experts. A Theory of Change (ToC) was developed for the review which distinguishes between three kinds of interventions, namely those focusing
- [What works for rural development in fragile states? Evidence from Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Yemen, Nepal and Bolivia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-works-for-rural-development-in-fragile-states-evidence-from-afghanistan-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo-yemen-nepal-and-bolivia/) - What works for rural development in fragile states and how can rural development contribute to mitigating fragility? This report highlights the major challenges rural development encounters in fragile settings. It looks at empirical evidence from five countries in South Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, Sub-Saharan Africa and South America (Afghanistan, Nepal, Yemen, the Democratic Republic of the
- [Securing Women’s Land and Property Rights: A Critical Step to Address HIV, Violence and Food Security](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/security-womens-land-and-property-rights-a-critical-step-to-address-hiv-violence-and-food-security/) - This briefing paper examines the importance of women’s land and property rights in the contexts of HIV and AIDS, violence against women and food security. Land and property rights increase women’s autonomy—decreasing their dependence on men and entrapment in abusive relationships, enabling greater control over sexual relations and improving their ability to produce food for
- [Authoritarianism, democracy and development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/authoritarianism-democracy-and-development/) - This paper reviews the evidence on authoritarianism and development from the perspective of a policy-maker providing advice to an ostensibly developmental authoritarian regime. It finds that the cross-national statistical evidence on regime type and development is inconclusive, and argues that varying experiences of development under authoritarianism are better-captured by structured-focused comparisons using ‘developmental states’ and
- [World Survey on the Role of Women in Development 2014: Gender equality and sustainable development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/world-survey-on-the-role-of-women-in-development-2014-gender-equality-and-sustainable-development/) - This World Survey focuses on gender equality and sustainable development, with highlights on the green economy and care work, food security, population dynamics, and investments for gender-responsive sustainable development. The report uses three criteria to assess whether policy actions and investments for sustainable development adequately address gender equality. Do they support women's capabilities and their
- [Legal Frameworks and Political Space for Non-Governmental Organisations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/legal-frameworks-and-political-space-for-non-governmental-organisations/) - This study examines the legal frameworks and political space for non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to operate in selected countries in order to suggest appropriate approaches for supporting civil society in difficult political contexts. The study is motivated by growing concern over the ability of civil society to fulfil its core functions, especially in the areas of
- [The State of the World’s Children 2014 In Numbers: Every Child Counts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-state-of-the-worlds-children-2014-in-numbers-every-child-counts/) - This UNICEF report presents data on the current state of children in the world. Data continue to support advocacy and action on behalf of the world’s 2.2 billion children, providing governments with facts on which to base decisions and actions to improve children’s lives. New ways of collecting and using data will help target investments
- [All under one roof: Disability-inclusive shelter and settlements in emergencies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/all-under-one-roof-disability-inclusive-shelter-and-settlements-in-emergencies/) - This technical guide aims to bridge the gap between good intentions and practical implementation for disability-inclusive shelter and settlement support in emergencies. Although the primary audience is staff and volunteers from across the IFRC Movement, this guide looks to transform the way humanitarian organisations approach inclusion and accessibility in their shelter and settlement programmes. Post-disaster
- [Bringing wellbeing into development practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/bringing-wellbeing-into-development-practice/) - There has been growing interest in wellbeing within international development. This paper addresses the lack of clarity on how to translate interest in wellbeing within international developing into practice at programme and project level. It reviews a number of different approaches and proposes a new conceptual framework that builds on their strengths. It reflects on
- [Timepass: Youth, class, and time among unemployed young men in India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/timepass-youth-class-and-time-among-unemployed-young-men-in-india/) - Through an analysis of unemployed young men in Uttar Pradesh, this article provides an ethnographic perspective on the relationship between economic reform in India and the insecurities of marginalised young men. It informs broader understandings of the temporal and spatial insecurities of young people marginalised by processes of neoliberal economic change, Exploring how feelings of
- [The rising costs of Turkey’s Syrian quagmire](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-rising-costs-of-turkeys-syrian-quagmire/) - This report examines Turkey’s humanitarian efforts, the tension between its public’s sympathy for, and unease toward, Syrians, and the government’s changing role with regard to Syria’s political and military opposition. It highlights the need for Turkey to develop a more comprehensive legal framework that expands the April 2013 law on foreigners and immigration in order
- [The shape and sustainability of Turkey’s booming humanitarian assistance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-shape-and-sustainability-of-turkeys-booming-humanitarian-assistance/) - What do we know about Turkey’s rapidly increasing humanitarian engagement? This article analyses the most important foreign and domestic policy issues and actors influencing Turkish humanitarian assistance. It questions the sustainability and scalability of current aid levels and calls for a more informed approach to working with various Turkish actors. The paper draws on: 15 interviews
- [Citizen-Led Accountability and Inclusivity in Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/citizen-led-accountability-and-inclusivity-in-pakistan/) - This paper examines the experiences of citizens' groups seeking to hold Pakistan’s elected representatives and governance institutions accountable. A recent citizen-led accountability programme across both conflict-affected and peaceful constituencies has reported significant success in mobilising volunteer groups to demand the resolution of local issues. This paper examines the strategies that contributed to their successes. It
- [Inclusivity and local perspectives in peacebuilding: Issues, lessons, challenges](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/inclusivity-and-local-perspectives-in-peacebuilding-issues-lessons-challenges/) - Recent attention on inclusivity so far has not translated into major changes in the way international actors operationalise peace building. This paper identifies key issues, lessons and challenges that need to be taken into consideration for strengthening and deepening the uptake of diverse perspectives in peacebuilding processes. It highlights that inclusivity is about engagement at various
- [Improving development aid design and evaluation: Plan for sailboats, not trains](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/improving-development-aid-design-and-evaluation-plan-for-sailboats-not-trains/) - How do reforms that require political engagement differ from traditional technical reforms? Why is political engagement different, and what are the implications for design and evaluation? How should development programmes that engage politics be designed? And how can those who fund or implement such programmes evaluate whether their efforts are contributing to reform? This report
- [Rights and resources: The effects of external financing on organising for women’s rights](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rights-and-resources-the-effects-of-external-financing-on-organising-for-womens-rights/) - Women’s rights organisations (WROs) have responded to the shifting international aid landscape of the last two decades. This report focuses on how this has occurred within the changing national contexts of Bangladesh and Ghana. It identifies the strong influence external financing has on what organisations do and how they go about it, and offers a model
- [The impact of Syrian refugees on the Turkish labour market](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-syrian-refugees-on-the-turkish-labour-market/) - 1.8 million Syrian people have found refuge in Turkey. Drawing on newly available data, this paper assesses the impact of refugee inflows on Turkish labour market conditions. It finds that these inflows change the level and composition of Turkish employment with particularly negative effects on Turkish workers in informal jobs (particularly women), the low educated,
- [Development co-operation report 2015: Making partnerships effective coalitions for action](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/development-co-operation-report-2015-making-partnerships-effective-coalitions-for-action/) - With the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals, the need for co-ordinated action is more urgent than ever. The Development Cooperation Report 2015 explores the potential of networks and partnerships to create incentives for responsible action, as well as innovative, fit-for-purpose ways of coordinating the activities of diverse stakeholders. To be effective, it is essential
- [Where have all the textbooks gone? Towards sustainable provision of teaching and learning materials in Sub-Saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/where-have-all-the-textbooks-gone-towards-sustainable-provision-of-teaching-and-learning-materials-in-sub-saharan-africa/) - This study is based on the multiple experiences of over 40 years’ of working in the education sector in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It takes an evidence-based approach as it seeks to explain why adequate and effective TLM (Teaching and Learning Materials) provision has remained so elusive despite decades of funding, and suggests what needs to
- [Towards a more effective early warning system in the horn of Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/towards-a-more-effective-early-warning-system-in-the-horn-of-africa/) - What are the lessons to be learnt and opportunities for improving CEWARN’s functionality as it implements and reviews its new strategy for 2012–2019? This report recognises how far CEWARN has come since 2002 when there was no mechanism in place and now, where it operates differently in 6 countries across the region in response to
- [State of the world's minorities and indigenous peoples 2015](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-of-the-worlds-minorities-and-indigenous-peoples-2015/) - In a context of rapid growth, an increasing proportion of minorities and indigenous peoples are now living in urban areas. Under the right conditions minority and indigenous communities have contributed to the growth, development and diversity of their cities. However, the concerns of minorities and indigenous peoples have yet to be mainstreamed into urban policy
- [Cities and children: The challenge of urbanisation in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cities-and-children-the-challenge-of-urbanisation-in-tanzania/) - Cities are becoming home to a growing proportion of Africa’s children. In Tanzania, already one in four lives in an urban centre – and many more will in coming years. This study aims to provide policymakers and others with an understanding of the impact of current urbanisation trends on Tanzania’s urban poor, especially children. It
- [Building resilience in a complex environment](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/building-resilience-in-a-complex-environment/) - The 2011 Horn of Africa food crisis demonstrated that building community resilience is more urgent than ever. This paper highlights the impact of CARE's four-year Regional Resilience Enhancement Against Drought Programme (RREAD), including finding the optimal balance of approaches that result in increased food and livelihood security. It suggests that building resilience must involve an institutional
- [Impact Evaluation of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Interventions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/impact-evaluation-of-conflict-prevention-and-peacebuilding-interventions/) - Impact evaluations are increasingly used as a tool to establish what works, why and under what circumstances in a variety of development sectors. However, doubts have been voiced as to the feasibility and desirability of carrying out impact evaluation in contexts of conflict and fragility. Some evaluators and practitioners in this field raise four main
- [5-year evaluation of the central emergency response fund. Synthesis report: final draft](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/5-year-evaluation-of-the-central-emergency-response-fund-synthesis-report-final-draft/) - This evaluation provides an assessment of the Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) between 2006 and 2010. Intended to inform debates at the United Nations General Assembly on the delivery of humanitarian assistance, it highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the CERF, and provides recommendations at the policy and operational levels to improve its effectiveness. Data
- [Skills development for inclusive and sustainable growth in developing Asia-Pacific](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/skills-development-for-inclusive-and-sustainable-growth-in-developing-asia-pacific/) - This paper brings together views, perspectives, and insights from policy makers, practitioners, and leading experts on skills development for inclusive and sustainable growth. The volume is organized in four parts: major trends and concerns relating to skills development prominent issues and strategies that are emerging in the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and
- [Child Poverty and Cash Transfers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/child-poverty-and-cash-transfers/) - There is increasing emphasis on targeted cash transfers as a key instrument in reducing poverty, deprivation and vulnerability among children and their households. How can cash transfers that are targeted at children be effective in reducing child poverty? Compiled for the Childhood Poverty Research and Policy Centre (CHIP), this paper considers the role of cash
- [Conditional Cash transfers and the Equity-Efficiency Debate](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conditional-cash-transfers-and-the-equity-efficiency-debate/) - What are the rationales, problems and trade-offs associated with Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs)? How can the tension between efficiency and equity be addressed? This working paper, published by the World Bank, urges policymakers to address these issues holistically in a comprehensive framework for the design of CCT programmes. It argues that equity and efficiency motivations,
- [Lessons Offered by Latin American Cash Transfer Programmes: Mexico's Oportunidades and Nicaragua's SPN](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/lessons-offered-by-latin-american-cash-transfer-programmes-mexicos-oportunidades-and-nicaraguas-spn/) - Cash transfers are part of a new generation of programmes oriented towards mitigating the most negative consequences of poverty. This paper by the DFID Health Systems Resource Centre analyses the specific cases of 'Mexico-Oportunidades' and 'Nicaragua Social Protection Network' and looks at cash transfers in Malawi and Zambia. It discusses possible implications of the Latin
- [Recent Trends in the Development Agenda of Latin America: An Analysis of Conditional Cash Transfers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/recent-trends-in-the-development-agenda-of-latin-america-an-analysis-of-conditional-cash-transfers/) - How and why did conditional cash transfer (CCT) programmes come about? What can they actually deliver, and what issues arise in their implementation? This paper discusses CCTs in Mexico and Brazil. It examines particular characteristics and implementation aspects, as well as contextual factors that help explain these programmes’ popularity. It concludes that whilst these programmes
- [Making Cash Count: Lessons from Cash Transfer Schemes in East and Southern Africa for Supporting the Most Vulnerable Children and Households](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-cash-count-lessons-from-cash-transfer-schemes-in-east-and-southern-africa-for-supporting-the-most-vulnerable-children-and-households/) - To what extent have unconditional cash transfers been used in East and Southern Africa, and what can be learnt from these schemes? This report was commissioned by the United Nations Children’s Fund as part of a review of social protection measures reaching vulnerable children. It summarises findings from a survey across 15 countries, and from
- [Is Microfinance a 'Magic Bullet' for Women's Empowerment? Analysis of Findings from South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-microfinance-a/) - Is microfinance a ‘magic bullet’ for women’s empowerment? This article published in the Economic and Political Weekly, India, examines the empirical evidence of the impact of microfinance on poverty reduction and the empowerment of poor women. Focusing on experiences in South Asia, it argues that while access to financial services can and does make important
- [Education Choices in Mexico: Using a Structural Model and a Randomized Experiment to Evaluate Progress](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-choices-in-mexico-using-a-structural-model-and-a-randomized-experiment-to-evaluate-progresa/) - What impact have monetary incentives had on education choices in rural Mexico? How can the design of educational interventions aimed at improving educational participation be improved? This paper from the Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) analyses the education component of the Mexican government’s welfare programme, Progresa, which aims to reduce rural poverty. It argues that
- [Social Protection: The Role of Cash Transfers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-protection-the-role-of-cash-transfers/) - Can social protection policies – including cash transfer schemes – promote pro-poor growth and reduce vulnerability? This issue of Poverty Focus, published by the UNDP International Poverty Centre (IPC), provides a snapshot of innovative social protection programmes and donor-led efforts to harness social protection as a means of reducing the risks for poor people engaging
- [Cash Benefits in Low-income Countries: Simulating the Effects on Poverty Reduction for Senegal and Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-benefits-in-low-income-countries-simulating-the-effects-on-poverty-reduction-for-senegal-and-tanzania/) - What is the potential impact of social cash transfers on poverty reduction in low-income countries? This discussion paper, published by the International Labour Organisation (ILO), provides a micro-simulation of basic social cash transfer programmes in Senegal and Tanzania and illustrates that basic social protection can play an important role in poverty reduction. For example, it
- [Managing the Fiduciary Risk Associated with Social Cash Transfer Programmes: DFID How To Note](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/managing-the-fiduciary-risk-associated-with-social-cash-transfer-programmes-dfid-how-to-note/) - What fiduciary risks do social cash transfer programmes, like pensions or household allowances, carry? How can international donors limit the diversion of these funds away from their intended beneficiaries? This paper from the Department for International Development outlines methods for appraising, minimising and monitoring the fiduciary risk of a cash transfer initiative. It argues that,
- [Poverty, Old-age and Social Pensions in Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-old-age-and-social-pensions-in-kenya/) - Protecting the elderly from the risk of poverty is a central challenge for developing countries. Could improvements in the pensions system help to reduce poverty in Kenya? This research from the UNDP Poverty Centre and World Bank examines the socioeconomic and demographic profiles of the elderly in Kenya to model potential interventions. It evaluates current
- [Cash-based Interventions: Lessons from Southern Somalia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-based-interventions-lessons-from-southern-somalia/) - Commodity distributions such as food aid remain the predominant relief response, but they are subject to growing criticism. Are cash-based interventions a viable alternative? This article, by Action Contre la Faim (ACF), attempts to contribute to the debate by describing ACF’s experience of the cash for work project it has run in southern Somalia since
- [Disability in Conditional Cash Transfer Programs: Drawing on Experience in LAC](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disability-in-conditional-cash-transfer-programs-drawing-on-experience-in-lac/) - Are disabled people served by conditional cash transfers (CCTs)? Should they be subject to the same conditionalities, and do programmes address the particular needs that disabled people may have in meeting these conditionalities? This paper from the World Bank raises structural and theoretical concerns about disabled people’s participation in CCT programs and examines four basic
- [Where is Education in the Conditional Cash Transfers of Education?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/where-is-education-in-the-conditional-cash-transfers-of-education/) - What are the educational benefits of Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) to children living in poor households? How are they targeted and implemented? Where does learning figure in the underlying programme theory? This working paper from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics critically examines some of the evidence on CCTs, focussing on the documentation of educational effects.There
- [Scoping Report on the Payment of Social Transfers through the Financial System](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/scoping-report-on-the-payment-of-social-transfers-through-the-financial-system/) - Payment arrangements can enhance the development impact of social transfers and should be a core aspect of the design and implementation of social transfer schemes. This report commissioned by the Department for International Development (DFID) provides an introduction to the options and issues surrounding the payment of social transfers. It sets out a structured approach to
- [No Small Change: Oxfam GB Malawi and Zambia Emergency Cash Transfer Projects: A Synthesis of Key Learning](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/no-small-change-oxfam-gb-malawi-and-zambia-emergency-cash-transfer-projects-a-synthesis-of-key-learning/) - Are cash transfers an appropriate and cost-effective alternative to food aid? Oxfam undertook cash transfer programmes in Malawi and Zambia in 2005-2006 in response to acute food insecurity. Evaluations by the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) show that cash transfers should be considered in future relief responses. However, case-by-case, context specific analysis is needed, particularly of
- [Examining Conditional Cash Transfer Programmes: A Role for Increased Social Inclusion?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/examining-conditional-cash-transfer-programmes-a-role-for-increased-social-inclusion/) - Conditional Cash Transfer programmes (CCTs) provide money to poor families, contingent on specific verifiable actions such as children's school attendance or preventative health care. How successful are CCTs in addressing social inclusion and inter-generational poverty? What is their impact on social accountability relationships between beneficiaries, service providers and governments? This summary focuses on the Social
- [Traditional Risk-sharing Arrangements and Informal Social Insurance in Eritrea](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/traditional-risk-sharing-arrangements-and-informal-social-insurance-in-eritrea/) - In the absence of formal safety nets, can Eritrea's traditional system of voluntary mutual aid community associations (Mahber) be extended to cover unexpected health costs and other related costs? This study examines the role of kinship networks and Mahber, and assesses the potential of Mahber-based health insurance schemes for the informal sector and rural poor.
- [Group-Based Funeral Insurance in Ethiopia and Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/group-based-funeral-insurance-in-ethiopia-and-tanzania/) - How do indigenous insurance institutions help people cope with the cost of funerals? Could these institutions be scaled up? This article analyses evidence from rural Tanzania and Ethiopia. It finds that these institutions are widespread and inclusive and may be well-placed to broaden insurance provision and other development activities. However, concerns about political capture (based
- [Demand and Supply-side Determinants of Conditional Cash Transfer Program Effectiveness](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/demand-and-supply-side-determinants-of-conditional-cash-transfer-program-effectiveness/) - How effective are conditional cash transfer programs in promoting human capital accumulation? This article, published in World Development, examines a conditional cash transfer program (Becas) that targets Argentine youth aged 13-19 years at risk of leaving school before completing their education. The study finds the program had a significant impact in terms of increasing student
- [The Impact of HIV/AIDS on Social Security Contributions: The Case of Zimbabwe](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-hivaids-on-social-security-contributions-the-case-of-zimbabwe/) - What is the potential impact of HIV/AIDS on social security contributions in Zimbabwe? What can be done to limit this impact? This article from the International Social Security Review aims to project the potential impact of HIV/AIDS and imposed ceilings on social security contributions in the context of high inflation. HIV/AIDS and the growth of
- [Addressing the Employment-Poverty Nexus in Kenya: Comparing Cash-Transfer and Job-Creation Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/addressing-the-employment-poverty-nexus-in-kenya-comparing-cash-transfer-and-job-creation-programmes/) - What links employment and poverty? This International Poverty Centre paper examines the links between poverty and unemployment, underemployment, employment and labour earnings in Kenya. It finds that poor workers need short-term social protection and all workers need an effective, long-term and employment-focused development strategy. The paper simulates the potential impact of two programmes designed to
- [Are Cash Transfers Made to Women Spent Like Other Sources of Income?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/are-cash-transfers-made-to-women-spent-like-other-sources-of-income/) - How cash transfers made to women are used has important implications for models of household behaviour and social programme design. This World Bank paper analyses the effects of cash transfers to women in rural Ecuador on the Engel food curve. The Engel curve relates expenditure on food (the food share) to total expenditure. The study
- [Conditional Cash Transfers: What Implications for Equality and Social Cohesion? The experience of Oportunidades in Mexico](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conditional-cash-transfers-what-implications-for-equality-and-social-cohesion-the-experience-of-oportunidades-in-mexico/) - The Oportunidades programme aims to increase the human capabilities of poor households and break the intergenerational cycle of poverty. Oportunidades helps five million families to enhance their well-being through cash transfers to mothers and increased access to education, health and nutrition. The programme has increased both access to and equality of access to public services,
- [Conditional Cash Transfers in Brazil, Chile and Mexico: Implications for Inequality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conditional-cash-transfers-in-brazil-chile-and-mexico-implications-for-inequality/) - What impact do conditional cash transfers (CCTs) have on inequality? This paper investigates the effects of CCTs in Brazil, Mexico and Chile. CCT programmes helped reduce inequality in all three countries between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s. They are a low-cost way of reducing inequality that can be replicated. However, the total amount transferred by these
- [Cash Transfers in Sierra Leone: Are They Appropriate, Affordable or Feasible?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-transfers-in-sierra-leone-are-they-appropriate-affordable-or-feasible/) - Can cash transfers assist in Sierra Leone’s post-conflict transition and contribute to reducing poverty levels? This Overseas Development Institute (ODI) project briefing discusses cash-based social protection programmes. It finds that the political acceptability of cash transfers remains a challenge. To achieve political acceptability, particularly from donors, cash transfer programmes must be linked, programmatically and institutionally,
- [The Case for Direct Cash Transfers to the Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-case-for-direct-cash-transfers-to-the-poor/) - Is the enormous expenditure on poverty eradication through centralised mechanisms the best way of improving the welfare of India’s poor and achieving its development objectives? This Economic and Political Weekly article argues that the poor should be trusted to use these resources better than the state. It proposes a radical redirection with substantial direct transfers
- [Conditional Cash Transfers: Reducing Present and Future Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conditional-cash-transfers-reducing-present-and-future-poverty/) - Do conditional cash transfer programmes (CCTs) succeed in reducing inequality? Are they effective in producing better development outcomes in the countries where they have been implemented? This report argues that CCTs have been an effective way to redistribute income to the poor, while recognising that even the best-designed and best-managed programme cannot fulfil all of
- [A Conceptual Framework for Understanding the Role of Cash Transfers in Social Protection](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-conceptual-framework-for-understanding-the-role-of-cash-transfers-in-social-protection/) - This note presents a conceptual framework outlining how cash transfers can promote and protect livelihoods in both development and humanitarian relief settings. The framework encompasses three spheres and the intersections between them: (1) institutions, politics and governance; (2) capacity and implementation; and (3) local economic and social impacts. Issues common to all three spheres include
- [Cash Transfers: Lessons from Africa and Latin America](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-transfers-lessons-from-africa-and-latin-america/) - What are the challenges facing conditional cash transfer (CCT) programmes in Latin America and social cash transfer (SCT) programmes in Africa? How can CCT and SCT advocates address the issue of expanding social assistance programmes in the face of government fiscal restraints? This issue of 'Poverty in Focus' notes that there is evidence of CCTs
- [Conditional Cash Transfers: A 'Pathway to Women's Empowerment'?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conditional-cash-transfers-a-pathway-to-womens-empowerment/) - Are Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) really providing long-term empowerment to women? If CCTs do little to promote the empowerment of women might they even be making things worse? This review of CCTs, particularly of PROGRESA in Mexico, argues that although these programmes are widely replicated due to their perceived positive impact in reducing poverty, they
- [Cash transfers, gender and generational relations: Evidence from a pilot project in Lesotho](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-transfers-gender-and-generational-relations-evidence-from-a-pilot-project-in-lesotho/) - Food aid has been the main response to repeated and protracted humanitarian crises in Lesotho since 2002. As part of World Vision’s emergency responses, it is implementing a pilot cash transfer programme in two districts in Lesotho – Maseru and Mohale’s Hoek. This paper reports the findings of fieldwork with cash, food, cash and food
- [The impact of conditional cash transfer programmes on child nutrition: a review of evidence using a programme theory framework](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-conditional-cash-transfer-programmes-on-child-nutrition-a-review-of-evidence-using-a-programme-theory-framework/) - Millions of children worldwide, particularly in low and middle income countries, suffer from nutritional deficiencies affecting their survival, health, development, and well-being. Targeted nutrition interventions to improve this situation include breastfeeding promotion, behaviour change and communication strategies to improve complementary feeding practices, supplementation and food fortification to improve micro-nutrient status, health interventions aimed at reducing
- [Cash Transfers and Voting Behaviour: Redistribution and Clientelism in Developing Democracies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-transfers-and-voting-behaviour-redistribution-and-clientelism-in-developing-democracies/) - What was the political impact of the government's Bolsa Família conditional cash transfer (CCT) programme in the 2006 Brazilian elections? This study estimates the extent to which the programme increased the probability of voting for President Lula. It concludes that Bolsa Família undoubtedly helped to re-elect Lula. While there is still considerable debate over the
- [Delivering Money: Cash Transfer Mechanisms in Emergencies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/delivering-money-cash-transfer-mechanisms-in-emergencies/) - This report offers guidance on assessing the different options for cash delivery. It also explores the potential for stronger partnerships with private sector providers and looks at developments in the payments industry. It argues that context-specific analysis is vital, as well as the integration of cash approaches into contingency planning. Clearly defined programme objectives help
- [Walking the Talk: Cash Transfers and Gender Dynamics](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/walking-the-talk-cash-transfers-and-gender-dynamics/) - Do cash transfers (CTs) in emergency contexts currently benefit women and contribute to women's empowerment? How can NGOs and donors develop more gender-sensitive CT programmes that help to redress inequality and work towards empowerment? This report examines the impacts of cash transfers on gender dynamics within households and communities. It finds mixed impacts and insufficient
- [Cash Transfers: Evidence Paper](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-transfers-evidence-paper/) - What impact do cash transfers have on reducing poverty and increasing the resilience of poor households? This paper assesses the evidence and looks at the extent to which it can be generalised. It shows how design and financing features help to maximise transfers' effectiveness in a range of circumstances. Ultimately, cash transfers work as part
- [Is there a Role for Cash Transfers in Climate Change Adaptation?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-there-a-role-for-cash-transfers-in-climate-change-adaptation/) - This article argues that cash transfers are likely to contribute to adaptive capacity by: (1) meeting basic needs; (2) helping the poor respond to climate-related shocks; (3) helping vulnerable households manage risk and consider investment innovations that increase their adaptive capacity; (4) transferring money for investment in long-term adaptive capacity development; and (5) facilitating mobility
- [Does Cash for School Influence Young Women's Behavior in the Longer Term? Evidence from Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/does-cash-for-school-influence-young-womens-behavior-in-the-longer-term-evidence-from-pakistan/) - An early evaluation of the Punjab Female School Stipend Program, a conditional cash transfer, shows that the enrolment of eligible girls in middle-school increased in the short term by nearly 9 percentage points. This paper uses regression discontinuity and difference-in-difference analyses to show that five years into the programme implementation positive impacts do persist. Beneficiary
- [New Technologies in Cash Transfer Programming and Humanitarian Assistance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/new-technologies-in-cash-transfer-programming-and-humanitarian-assistance/) - Advances in new technology in low-income countries mean there is growing interest in how technology can best serve humanitarian responses. Technology is felt to have potential to detect needs earlier, enable greater scale and speed of responses, enhance specificity of resource transfers to match needs and increase accountability while reducing opportunities for corruption and diversion.
- [What are the economic impacts of conditional cash transfer programmes? A systematic review of the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-are-the-economic-impacts-of-conditional-cash-transfer-programmes-a-systematic-review-of-the-evidence/) - The review finds strong evidence that CCTs could lead to a rise in overall household consumption, increase investment in productive assets, reduce child labour and increase school attendance. The evidence on the impact of CCTs on adult labour is mixed. There is only limited evidence of spillover effects within communities in terms of poverty reduction.
- [How Effective are Cash Transfer Programmes at Improving Nutritional Status? A Rapid Evidence Assessment of Programmes’ Effects on Anthropometric Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/how-effective-are-cash-transfer-programmes-at-improving-nutritional-status-a-rapid-evidence-assessment-of-programmes-effects-on-anthropometric-outcomes/) - Cash transfer programmes are a widely applied social protection scheme that has achieved successes in fighting poverty worldwide. A large literature has sprung up around these programmes, yet the relationship between cash transfer programmes and the nutritional status of recipient children is unclear. Can cash transfers be counted on to improve child health, or are
- [Cash Transfers and Child Schooling: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation of the Role of Conditionality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cash-transfers-and-child-schooling-evidence-from-a-randomized-evaluation-of-the-role-of-conditionality/) - Do conditions imposed by Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) influence the outcomes they seek to improve? This paper presents the results of a randomized experiment in rural Burkina Faso to estimate the impact of conditional and unconditional cash transfers on education. The study of the two-year pilot programme found that unconditional and conditional cash transfers had
- [Holding Cash Transfers to Account: Beneficiary and Community Perspectives](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/holding-cash-transfers-to-account-beneficiary-and-community-perspectives/) - This report presents qualitative and participatory research findings on beneficiary and community perceptions of five unconditional cash transfer programmes in the Middle East and North Africa and in sub-Saharan Africa. It finds that cash transfers are not only critical to meeting basic consumption costs but are also key to increasing people's sense of self-worth, dignity
- [Social Transfers and Child Protection](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-transfers-and-child-protection/) - This paper assesses the available evidence on the potential effects of social transfers on child protection outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: the negative outcomes or damaging exposure of children to violence, exploitation, abuse and neglect, and improved outcomes or a reduction in exposure to these phenomena. The study evaluates three possible channels through which
- [Relative Effectiveness of Conditional and Unconditional Cash Transfers for Schooling Outcomes in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/relative-effectiveness-of-conditional-and-unconditional-cash-transfers-for-schooling-outcomes-in-developing-countries-a-systematic-review/) - Increasing educational attainment around the world is one of the key aims of the Millennium Development Goals. Cash transfer programs, both conditional and unconditional, are a popular social protection tool in developing countries that aim, among other things, to improve education outcomes in developing countries. The debate over whether these programs should include conditions has
- [Research gaps in cash transfer programming](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/research-gaps-in-cash-transfer-programming/) - This study was commissioned by the Cash Learning Partnership in advance of defining potential research topics for 2014. Its aim was to:Understand what action and evidence-based research is currently available. Find out who the key research actors are, and how research findings and recommendations are used and shared, and research impact monitored. Identify and prioritise
- [Examining Protection and Gender in Cash and Voucher Transfers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/examining-protection-and-gender-in-cash-and-voucher-transfers/) - This study investigates whether cash and voucher transfers work towards improving protection of (or at least doing no further harm to) beneficiaries, and what impact they could have on gender and community dynamics. It draws on qualitative data from eight case studies in situations ranging from emergency relief to development across Africa, Asia, Latin America
- [The impact of conditional cash transfer programmes on household work decisions in Ghana](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-conditional-cash-transfer-programmes-on-household-work-decisions-in-ghana/) - A cash transfer programme ‘Livelihood Empowerment against Poverty’ has been implemented with the aim of addressing poverty and vulnerability in Ghana. This study looks at the impact of this conditional cash transfer programme on households’ supply of labour for agriculture, paid employment, and non-farm enterprise. It used a difference-in-difference approach to examine the effects of
- [Elite Attitudes Towards Cash Transfers and the Poor in Malawi](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/elite-attitudes-towards-cash-transfers-and-the-poor-in-malawi/) - This paper argues that the planning of cash transfer (CT) programmes needs to involve more consideration of the country-specific attitudes of elites. It is members of a country’s elites who are often expected to implement – and in the long term, allocate domestic funding to – such programmes. The paper presents findings from primary research
- [Conditional Cash Transfers, Civil Conflict and Insurgent Influence: Experimental Evidence from the Philippines](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conditional-cash-transfers-civil-conflict-and-insurgent-influence-experimental-evidence-from-the-philippines/) - This paper presents an experimental evaluation of the effect of a large conditional cash transfer (CCT) program—the Philippines' Pantawid Pamilya—on the intensity of violence and local insurgent influence in civil conflict. In the last decade CCT programs have become one of the most popular tools for delivering development aid and a large literature documents their
- [Resilience: New Utopia or New Tyranny? Reflection about the Potentials and Limits of the Concept of Resilience in Relation to Vulnerability Reduction Programmes.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/resilience-new-utopia-or-new-tyranny-reflection-about-the-potentials-and-limits-of-the-concept-of-resilience-in-relation-to-vulnerability-reduction-programmes/) - Resilience is becoming influential in development and vulnerability reduction sectors such as social protection, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. In that context, the objective of this paper was to assess in a critical manner the advantages and limits of resilience. While the review highlights some positive elements –in particular the ability of the
- [Funds for Peace? Examining the Transformative Potential of Social Funds](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/funds-for-peace-examining-the-transformative-potential-of-social-funds/) - Social funds and large-scale community driven development (CDD) programmes are a popular policy instrument in post-conflict situations. This is partly because they are seen to alleviate pressure on governments to deliver development and reconstruction outcomes by transferring resources and responsibilities to community actors. However, part of their popularity can also be explained by claims that
- [Strengthening Voice and Accountability in the Health Sector](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strengthening-voice-and-accountability-in-the-health-sector/) - How can greater voice and accountability for citizens bring about improved health services? This Technical Brief from the Partnerships for Transforming Health Systems Programme (PATHS) reviews several voice and accountability initiatives supported by PATHS in selected states in Nigeria. It concludes that the creation of formal mechanisms of voice and accountability can be effective in
- [Mutual Accountability Mechanisms: Accountability, Voice and Responsiveness](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mutual-accountability-mechanisms-accountability-voice-and-responsiveness/) - How can one increase the responsiveness and accountability of development agents, decision makers and service providers to the concerns of the poor? This paper examines the building of accountability mechanisms as part of developing capacity. The capacity of any system requires appropriate feedback loops to self-regulate, adapt and effectively achieve its objectives. For any accountability
- [Empowerment and Institutional Change: Mapping Virtuous Circles of State-society Interaction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/empowerment-and-institutional-change-mapping-virtuous-circles-of-state-society-interaction/) - How do pro-poor reform innovations scale up and spread out to influence entire agencies, regions or nation-states? How can pro-poor policy makers and social actors gain leverage against those who oppose reform? This article looks at pro-poor institutional change in rural Mexico. It argues that the empowerment of poor people is important for the success
- [Aid and Domestic Accountability](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/aid-and-domestic-accountability/) - How does poor governance constrain development? This paper was prepared for the launch of the OECD DAC Network on Governance (GOVNET) work-stream on Aid and Domestic Accountability. It sets out a conceptual framework and approach that will enable donors and other stakeholders to explore the complexities of real-world governance, consider aid impact, and analyse the
- [Conceptualising Empowerment and the Implications for Pro Poor Growth](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conceptualising-empowerment-and-the-implications-for-pro-poor-growth/) - This Institute of Development Studies paper proposes a framework to enable the empowerment of the poor to be conceptually understood and operationally explored. It examines the different facets of ‘social’, ‘economic’ and ‘political’ empowerment. International development actors often lack awareness of much that is already known about these issues. These are the conceptual tools for
- [Learning from governance initiatives for conflict resolution: Local agency, inclusive dialogue and developmentality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/learning-from-governance-initiatives-for-conflict-resolution-local-agency-inclusive-dialogue-and-developmentality/) - This report seeks to draw lessons learned from several of the governance initiatives for conflict resolution under examination in the Cultures of Governance and Conflict Resolution in Europe and India (CORE) project. The report finds that there is a general lack of consideration for local agency and its potential capacity in the design and implementation of initiatives,
- [Deterrence as a security concept against non-traditional threats: In-depth study](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/deterrence-as-a-security-concept-against-non-traditional-threats-in-depth-study/) - This study focuses on the international dimension of five threats that could affect the Netherland: terrorism; threats in the cyber domain; organised crime; threats in the economic domain; and ambiguous warfare. It also analyses the applicability of deterrence as an instrument in the context of each area. These main areas of threat are discussed in terms of
- [Why Do Soldiers Rape? Masculinity, Violence, and Sexuality in the Armed Forces in the Congo (DRC)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/why-do-soldiers-rape-masculinity-violence-and-sexuality-in-the-armed-forces-in-the-congo-drc/) - This article explores the ways soldiers in the Congo speak about the massive amount of rape committed by the armed forces in the recent war in the DRC. It focuses on the reasons that the soldiers give to why rape occurs. It discusses how the soldiers distinguish between 'lust rapes' and 'evil rapes' and argues
- [Effects of urbanization on economic growth and human capital formation in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/effects-of-urbanization-on-economic-growth-and-human-capital-formation-in-africa/) - Africa’s population is expected to grow to 2.3 billion by 2050, of whom 60% will be urban. This urbanisation is an important challenge for the next few decades. According to several research papers and reports, Africa’s urbanisation was, in contrast with most other regions in the world, not associated with economic growth in past decades.
- [Religion in world affairs: Its role in conflict and peace](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/religion-in-world-affairs-its-role-in-conflict-and-peace/) - This report seeks to demonstrate the nature of the religious dimension of international conflict, which is sometimes neglected, often misunderstood, and frequently exaggerated. It also illustrates how religious leaders have addressed conflict and injustices confronting their societies. Religious leaders have employed a variety of peacemaking techniques, ranging from mediation and facilitation to interfaith dialogue, to
- [Faith-Based Peace-Building: Mapping and Analysis of Christian, Muslim and Multi-Faith Actors](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/faith-based-peace-building-mapping-and-analysis-of-christian-muslim-and-multi-faith-actors/) - What role can religion play in building peace? This paper analyses 27 Christian, Muslim and multi-faith organizations that are working on peace-building in conflict situations. By studying how they operate as peace-builders, the paper aims to shed more light on the peace-building potential of faith-based organizations. It particularly aims to advise donors on how they
- [The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-ambivalence-of-the-sacred-religion-violence-and-reconciliation/) - Under what conditions do religious actors become violent? Under what conditions do they reject violence? How do non-violent religious actors become agents of peacebuilding? This book from the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict examines these questions using a number of case studies from different religions. It argues that a new breed of religious peacemakers
- [Religion and Democratization in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/religion-and-democratization-in-africa/) - How have religious leaders contributed to democratisation in Africa? What is the political importance of popular religions on the African continent? This article argues that the overall pace of democratisation has been disappointing and that senior religious figures have failed to encourage a move from mere cosmetic changes to more substantial democratic reforms in Africa.
- [Culture Matters - Working with Communities and Faith-based Organizations: Case Studies from Country Programmes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/culture-matters-working-with-communities-and-faith-based-organizations-case-studies-from-country-programmes/) - How can culturally sensitive approaches enhance development practice? This report, by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), advocates working within cultures as a means towards achieving international development goals and advancing human rights. Specifically, it documents the implementation of the Programme of Action agreed at the 1994 Cairo International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD).
- [Is Religious Violence Inevitable?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-religious-violence-inevitable/) - Is religious violence inevitable? This paper from the Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, argues that there are patterns within religion that tend towards conflict and violence. Western theorists have viewed the religious world through the blinkered lens of the Cold War. Modernity has not destroyed religion, but become a case study of its
- [Political Islam Among the Albanians: Are the Taliban coming to the Balkans?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/political-islam-among-the-albanians-are-the-taliban-coming-to-the-balkans-2nd-edition/) - What effect are faith-based NGOs having on religion and society in Kosovo? What are the possible consequences of leaving the provision of services in rural Kosovo to Saudi-funded religious organisations? This paper from the Kosovar Institute for Policy Research and Development (KIPRED) examines the activities of Saudi-funded faith-based organisations in Kosovo. It argues that the
- [Religious Contributions to Peacemaking: When Religion Brings Peace, Not War](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/religious-contributions-to-peacemaking-when-religion-brings-peace-not-war/) - The threat of religious extremism is real and well documented, but the contribution that religion can make to peacemaking—as the flip side of religious conflict—is only beginning to be explored and explicated. This selection of studies edited by the United States Institute of Peace (USIP) explores and analyses a number of case studies of faith-based
- [Tackling HIV and AIDS with Faith-Based Communities: Learning from Attitudes on Gender Relations and Sexual Rights within Local Evangelical Churches in Burkina Faso, Zimbabwe, and South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/tackling-hiv-and-aids-with-faith-based-communities-learning-from-attitudes-on-gender-relations-and-sexual-rights-within-local-evangelical-churches-in-burkina-faso-zimbabwe-and-south-africa/) - How have local evangelical churches in Africa responded to the AIDS pandemic that is devastating the continent? Are churches tackling issues of sexual activity and behaviour, and if so, are they doing so in an informed and positive manner? This article from Gender and Development, based on research by Tearfund, explores the position of churches
- [The Role and Functions of Religious Civil Society in Afghanistan: Case Studies from Sayedabad and Kunduz](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-and-functions-of-religious-civil-society-in-afghanistan-case-studies-from-sayedabad-and-kunduz/) - To what extent have Afghan religious leaders been involved in the post-2001 efforts to build a new state and foster development? What are their perspectives on the unfolding process, and on the various actors that are driving it? This paper from the Co-operation for Peace and Unity (CPAU) explores the possibilities for engaging Afghan religious
- [Faithful Brokers? Potentials and Pitfalls of Religion in Peacemaking](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/faithful-brokers-potentials-and-pitfalls-of-religion-in-peacemaking/) - What potential do religious actors have for acting as constructive peacemakers? How does the fundamental identity of the peace broker affect the chances of success? This article in Conflict Resolution Quarterly examines the role of religious actors in peacemaking. Three facets of religion – norms, identity, and organisation – are analysed. Each may feed into
- [Religious Networks in Post-conflict Democratic Republic of the Congo: A Prognosis](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/religious-networks-in-post-conflict-democratic-republic-of-the-congo-a-prognosis/) - Religion has emerged as a strong socio-political factor in galvanising people and is assuming greater importance in many countries irrespective of their level of economic development. One of the importance of religion is reflected in the public domain (especially in countries that have a weak state apparatus) where faith-based actors are co-opted into crucial local
- [Ethno-Religious Conflicts: Exploring the Role of Religion in Conflict Resolution](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ethno-religious-conflicts-exploring-the-role-of-religion-in-conflict-resolution/) - How can the religious texts, values and beliefs used to incite conflict be harnessed to promote peace-building and reconciliation? What contributions can faith-based actors make to conflict resolution? This chapter from the SAGE Handbook of Conflict Resolution examines the ways in which religion can be used to inspire both war and peace. The revival of religiously motivated
- [The Unhappy Marriage of Religion and Politics: problems and pitfalls for gender equality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-unhappy-marriage-of-religion-and-politics-problems-and-pitfalls-for-gender-equality/) - Has the growing presence of religion in politics made it harder for women to pursue gender equity? This article explores how religion as a political force shapes the struggle for gender equality in developing and developed countries. It is based on studies in Chile, India, Iran, Israel, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Serbia, Turkey and the
- [Strengthening the Voice of the Poor: Faith-Based Organizations' Engagement in Policy Consultation Processes in Nigeria and Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strengthening-the-voice-of-the-poor-faith-based-organizations-engagement-in-policy-consultation-processes-in-nigeria-and-tanzania/) - This paper reports on pilot projects in Nigeria and Tanzania that tested the potential for religious organisations to engage collaboratively in policy consultation processes. The cases showed that Faith-Based Organisations can cooperate across religious and denominational divides to assemble grassroots data on issues central to Poverty Reduction Strategy Processes (and their successors), analyse findings and
- [Religion and Peacebuilding: Reflections on Current Challenges and Future Prospects](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/religion-and-peacebuilding-reflections-on-current-challenges-and-future-prospects/) - What role does religion play in peacebuilding? American and European nongovernmental organizations, agencies in the U.S. government, academia, and international organizations—sectors that once held religious issues at a distance or understood religion mainly as a driver of violence—increasingly engage religious communities and institutions as partners in creating peace. Meanwhile, religious organizations that have been involved
- [Bringing Global Jihad to the Horn of Africa: al Shabaab, Western Fighters, and the Sacralisation of the Somali Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/bringing-global-jihad-to-the-horn-of-africa-al-shabaab-western-fighters-and-the-sacralisation-of-the-somali-conflict/) - Sacralisation of conflict is the process through which religion, or, in most cases, a militant interpretation of it, evolves from being an irrelevant or secondary factor at the onset of a conflict to shaping the views, actions, and aims of one or more of the conflict’s key actors. The article outlines how this phenomenon has
- [Religion and Mediation: The Role of Faith-Based Actors in International Conflict Resolution](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/religion-and-mediation-the-role-of-faith-based-actors-in-international-conflict-resolution/) - This paper emphasises the importance of religion and religious actors in the process of mediation. We examine the general conditions that facilitate mediation in international relations and assess how much these hold true in the case of faith-based mediation. We find that aspects such as legitimacy and leverage have a major impact on the success
- [Unintended Consequences: Does Aid Promote Arms Races?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/unintended-consequences-does-aid-promote-arms-races/) - Does aid promote competition for military supremacy between neighbouring developing countries? This paper from the Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics investigates motivations for military spending in developing countries and whether this spending deters internal conflict. Global data indicates that some regional arms races are fuelled by aid and that military spending does not reduce
- [The Logic of Child Soldiering and Coercion](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-logic-of-child-soldiering-and-coercion/) - Why do armed groups recruit large numbers of children as fighters, often coercively? The international community has tried to curb these crimes by shaming and punishing leaders who commit them—in short, making the crimes costlier. Are these policies effective and sufficient? The answer lies in more attention to the strategic interaction between rebel leaders and
- [Transforming gender roles in domestic and caregiving work: preliminary findings from engaging fathers in maternal, newborn, and child health in Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transforming-gender-roles-in-domestic-and-caregiving-work-preliminary-findings-from-engaging-fathers-in-maternal-newborn-and-child-health-in-rwanda/) - This article draws on Promundo and RWAMREC's programmatic experiences in Rwanda of implementing MenCare+, a gender transformative approach to engaging young and adult men (ages 15–35) in caregiving, maternal, newborn, and child health, and sexual and reproductive health and rights. The paper presents initial results from fathers' groups with more than 600 men, including the
- [The role and impact of private schools in developing countries: a rigorous review of the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-and-impact-of-private-schools-in-developing-countries-a-rigorous-review-of-the-evidence/) - This rigorous review looks at the evidence on the role and impact of private schools on the education of school-aged children in developing countries. The focus of the review is on private school delivery of education to poorer sections of societies, including private schools identified as low-fee private schools (LFPs). The evidence is mixed and
- [What Do Indian Middle Class Attitudes to Poverty Tell Us About the Politics of Poverty Reduction?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-do-indian-middle-class-attitudes-to-poverty-tell-us-about-the-politics-of-poverty-reduction/) - What makes the middle classes oppose or support initiatives intended to lift people out of poverty, and how can the development community secure their interest in and approval of such policies? The assumption among donors, development practitioners and researchers is often that the middle class are either not interested in helping the poor, or are
- [An Act of Faith: Humanitarian Financing and Zakat](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/an-act-of-faith-humanitarian-financing-and-zakat/) - This report sheds some light on the purpose, scale and potential of Zakat for financing humanitarian response. It provides a basis on which to open up discussions around how that potential might be maximised – both by increasing the overall volume of Zakat collected and improving the mechanisms available to channel Zakat to the humanitarian
- [Estimating the Costs and Impacts of Intimate Partner Violence in Developing Countries: A Methodological Resource Guide](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/estimating-the-costs-and-impacts-of-intimate-partner-violence-in-developing-countries-a-methodological-resource-guide/) - Violence against women is a pervasive phenomenon common in developing and developed countries alike. Violence against women manifests in multiple behaviours including rape, sexual coercion, incest, honour killings, female genital mutilation, acid burnings, stalking and trafficking. Perpetrators of violence against women can be intimate partners, family members, members of the community or strangers. Across cultures,
- [The PRSP Process: What Next ?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-prsp-process-what-next/) - In recent years many development assistance agencies have promoted a multidimensional approach to poverty reduction and governance issues have featured prominently in poverty reduction strategy papers (PRSPs). However from the perspective of most highly indebted poor countries (HIPC) countries such a multidimensional approach to reducing poverty may present an overwhelming agenda. This report from DFID
- [Financial Inclusion Policy Guide](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/financial-inclusion-policy-guide/) - The objective of this policy guide is to provide policymakers and programme designers with an up-to-date view of what needs to be done to include the poorest people in financial services. The guide highlights four promising ways forward for policies and interventions that aim to include the poorest faster than would otherwise be the case
- [Zero poverty… think again: Impact of climate change on development efforts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/zero-poverty-think-again-impact-of-climate-change-on-development-efforts/) - This paper reviews knowledge about the impacts of climate change on eight development goal areas and argues that it is essential for climate change to be addressed in order not to compromise development efforts. It argues that climate change will have wide-ranging consequences, direct and indirect, on development and poverty reduction and affect the achievability
- [Impact of the Chars Livelihoods Programme on the Disaster Resilience of Chars Communities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/impact-of-the-chars-livelihoods-programme-on-the-disaster-resilience-of-chars-communities/) - This study attempts to measure the impact that the Chars Livelihood Programme (CLP) has had on the disaster resilience of communities. It used a mixed methods approach. Quantitative data was collected using questionnaires and then a score card was created. Key Informant Interviews were then performed to collect qualitative data to understand the findings of
- [Marriage, Motherhood and Masculinity in the Global Economy: Reconfigurations of Personal and Economic Life](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/marriage-motherhood-and-masculinity-in-the-global-economy-reconfigurations-of-personal-and-economic-life/) - Is the rise of women in the labour market changing the perception of their role in the home? This study explores how women and men are dealing with the feminisation of labour markets in the face of the prevalence of male breadwinner ideologies and the apparent threat to male authority represented by women's earnings. It
- [Urban Labour Market Discrimination](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/urban-labour-market-discrimination/) - Do caste and religion influence a graduate’s employment opportunities in India’s private sector? This paper from the Indian Institute of Dalit Studies examines the prevalence of discrimination in the job application processes of modern private sector enterprises. It finds that discriminatory processes operate even at the first stage of the application process. Caste favouritism and social exclusion still exist
- [Strengthening social justice to address intersecting inequalities post-2015](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strengthening-social-justice-to-address-intersecting-inequalities-post-2015/) - The people most likely to be left behind by development are those facing 'intersecting inequalities', or economic deficits intersecting with discrimination and exclusion on the grounds of identity and locational disadvantage. The experiences and relative successes of seven countries reviewed in this report suggest that there are a small number of 'key ingredients' required to
- [Human Development Report 2014 - Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/human-development-report-2014-sustaining-human-progress-reducing-vulnerabilities-and-building-resilience/) - The 2014 Human Development Report— Sustaining Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience—looks at two concepts which are both interconnected and immensely important to securing human development progress. It shows that overall global trends are positive and that progress is continuing. Yet, lives are being lost, and livelihoods and development undermined, by natural or human-induced disasters
- [Secure property rights and development: Economic growth and household welfare](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/secure-property-rights-and-development-economic-growth-and-household-welfare/) - There remain debates on the association between secure property rights and long-term economic growth. Some evidence support this association, others critique the methods of analysis used in studies which find an association. Some studies argue that the link is not observed in important case studies; and others query whether strengthened property rights are the most
- [Economic strengthening activities in child protection interventions: An adapted systematic review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/economic-strengthening-activities-in-child-protection-interventions-an-adapted-systematic-review/) - This paper is part of a broader research and networking programme that aims to strengthen linkages between action on poverty, development and child protection. It reports on an adapted systematic review that examines the contribution of anti-poverty programmes to child protection interventions in four areas – child marriage, sexual violence, physical violence and inadequate care
- [Textbook development in low income countries: A guide for policy and practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/textbook-development-in-low-income-countries-a-guide-for-policy-and-practice/) - This manual on textbook provision in low income countries serves as an accompanying publication to a World Bank elearning course. It responds to the challenge of getting affordable books to school children when and where needed and aims to be a practical resource that covers key issues encountered in textbook development, ranging from authorship through
- [Assessing the added value of strategic funding to civil society](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/assessing-the-added-value-of-strategic-funding-to-civil-society/) - This IELG-commissioned study looks at the strengths and challenges of strategic (unrestricted) funding across 37 organisations drawing on Independent Progress Reviews carried out for DFID’s PPA funding recipients after the first 18 months. It seeks to understand the added value of this funding for CSOs, their impact populations, funders and the wider development sector. The
- [World Disasters Report: Focus on culture and risk](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/world-disasters-report-focus-on-culture-and-risk/) - Culture and beliefs, for example, in spirits or gods, or simple fatalism, enable people to live with risks and make sense of their lives in dangerous places. This paper looks at different aspects of how culture affects disaster risk reduction (DRR) and how disasters and risk influence culture. It assesses the effects of religion and
- [East African prospects: an update on the political economy of Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/east-african-prospects-an-update-on-the-political-economy-of-kenya-rwanda-tanzania-and-uganda/) - Under what conditions are equity- and productivity-enhancing reforms likely to prosper in sectors of the East African economy? How likely is it that these conditions will be present in the next decade? What specific features of the current political-economic situation are most relevant from the perspective of practical organisations committed to supporting progressive changes? What
- [Do young people act to make a difference?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/do-young-people-act-to-make-a-difference/) - This brief from Twaweza draws on a survey of 2,432 Ugandans aged 15-35. It finds that they have a much greater sense of general self-efficacy than of political self-efficacy, perhaps reflecting mistrust of the political system. Almost a third of respondents say they have taken action to address community issues. Self-efficacy appears to matter more
- [Promoting Active Citizenship: What have we learned from 10 case studies of Oxfam’s work?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/promoting-active-citizenship-what-have-we-learned-from-10-case-studies-of-oxfams-work/) - This paper pulls together insights and lessons that arise from ten case studies of Oxfam’s work in promoting active citizenship. The case studies cover a wide range of programmes, both in terms of geography and sector (humanitarian, long-term development, advocacy and campaigns). Lessons on promoting active citizenship include building citizens’ self-confidence and assertiveness, and identifying
- [Strengthening social justice to address intersecting inequalities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strengthening-social-justice-to-address-intersecting-inequalities/) - This report addresses the significance of deep identity based forms of exclusion, which constrain the life chances of affected social groups. It explores policies and programmes that address these intersecting inequalities in a group of countries that have made significant efforts and improvements, as a way of indicating what is possible in this difficult terrain.
- [Exploring the Science of Complexity: Ideas and Implications for Development and Humanitarian Efforts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/exploring-the-science-of-complexity-ideas-and-implications-for-development-and-humanitarian-efforts/) - What is complexity science? How can it contribute to development and humanitarian efforts? This paper explores the key concepts of complexity science and shows how they might help development practitioners engaged in reform. The concepts highlight that the best course of action will be context-dependent, and they offer new ways to think about questions that
- [Looking Like a State: Techniques of Persistent Failure in State Capability for Implementation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/looking-like-a-state-techniques-of-persistent-failure-in-state-capability-for-implementation/) - There are multiple dimensions to ‘development’, one of which is the acquisition of administrative capability, which in the standard characterisation of the modernisation process is the acquisition of state capability. Enhancing this capability, especially in fragile states, is a long-term task. This paper aims to explain how developing countries and international agencies sustain a dynamic
- [The Reliability of Perception Surveys in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-reliability-of-perception-surveys-in-afghanistan/) - The surveys conducted in Afghanistan and other challenging environments tend to polarise opinions, with either too much or too little confidence often being placed in the findings. This paper examines three concerns regarding perception surveys in Afghanistan: that the responses are unreliable that the samples are unrepresentative of the populace that the data is commonly
- [Theories of change in anti-corruption work: A tool for programme design and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/theories-of-change-in-anti-corruption-work-a-tool-for-programme-design-and-evaluation/) - The paper presents a user-friendly five-step methodology for building a theory of change for an anti-corruption programme or project. It highlights the importance of preconditions, factors that must be in place for the intervention to work as intended, distinguishing between those preconditions that can be addressed by the programme design and those that cannot. Finally,
- [State Fragility: Towards a Multi-Dimensional Empirical Typology](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-fragility-towards-a-multi-dimensional-empirical-typology/) - This paper proposes an approach to empirically identify country groupings that are each characterised by a distinct constellation of state fragility. It builds upon a theoretical framework that distinguishes three dimensions of statehood: authority, legitimacy and state capacity. The study argues that current approaches towards measuring fragility do not properly account for the diversity of
- [Getting smart and scaling up: responding to the impact of organized crime on governance in developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/getting-smart-and-scaling-up-responding-to-the-impact-of-organized-crime-on-governance-in-developing-countries/) - This report highlights the importance of separating organised crime from politics while enhancing legitimate governance and service delivery. Based on a literature review and six country case studies, it offers detailed recommendations in five core areas: protecting the political process; modernising and strengthening law enforcement and the judiciary; supporting crime-sensitive economic and social policy development;
- [Lights, Camera, Jihad: Al-Shabaab’s Western Media Strategy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/lights-camera-jihad-al-shabaabs-western-media-strategy/) - While the threat that al-Shabaab poses to the West can easily be overstated, its outreach to Muslims living in Europe and the United States has been successful relative to other al-Qaeda-linked groups and warrants exploration. The organisation has recruited dozens of foreign fighters from the West. It also holds the dubious distinction of being the
- [Youth, Waithood, and Protest Movements in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/youth-waithood-and-protest-movements-in-africa/) - This lecture examines the broad challenges facing young Africans today, particularly those relating to their socioeconomic position, citizenship, and political activism. It was first presented at the Fifth European Conference on African Studies, Lisbon, 28 June 2013. Youth in Africa face unemployment and restricted opportunities, driving many of them to challenge the status quo and
- [Youth Matters: Equipping vulnerable young people with literacy and life skills](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/youth-matters-equipping-vulnerable-young-people-with-literacy-and-life-skills/) - This brief looks at how countries are addressing vulnerable youth in their policies and programmes around the world. A multi-country research and policy-dialogue process on ‘Literacy and Life Skills Education for Vulnerable Youth’ was initiated in 2010. Two regional policy forums (one in Bamako, Mali and another in Cairo, Egypt in 2011) were held to
- [Investing in Women's Employment: Good for Business, Good for Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/investing-in-womens-employment-good-for-business-good-for-development/) - Investing in women’s employment is key to unlocking growth in emerging and developing economies. It makes business sense to support better employment opportunities for women beyond minimum statutory compliance. This report has been developed as a guide for companies operating in emerging and developing economies and is intended to inform and encourage further progress on
- [Changing Social Contracts: Beliefs and Dissipative Inclusion in Brazil](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/changing-social-contracts-beliefs-and-dissipative-inclusion-in-brazil/) - This paper discusses the changing social contract in Brazil by examining the correlation between beliefs and distribution policies that have shifted over the last thirty years. It is based on the premise that such a large punctuated change in beliefs and the ensuing shift in social contract is a relatively rare event in the modern
- [Social desirability bias and reported vote preferences in African surveys](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-desirability-bias-and-reported-vote-preferences-in-african-surveys/) - Much of what we know about voting behavior in Africa is based on data from public opinion surveys. However, there has been little investigation into whether reported voter preferences are reliable, or whether they are affected by bias, particularly that which may arise from the social undesirability of “tribalistic” voting. This study utilises a voting
- [What is the evidence on the impact of research on international development? A DFID literature review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-is-the-evidence-on-the-impact-of-research-on-international-development-a-dfid-literature-review/) - Four pathways are commonly cited to describe how research will contribute to development: (i) driving economic growth, (ii) increasing human capital, (iii) leading to the development of pro-poor products and technologies and (iv) providing evidence to inform policies and practice. This literature review examines the evidence related to each of these four pathways. It demonstrates
- [What Drives Quality Of Schools In Africa? Disentangling Social Capital And Ethnic Divisions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-drives-quality-of-schools-in-africa-disentangling-social-capital-and-ethnic-divisions/) - In this paper data from the Afrobarometer is used to test the role of social capital and ethnic divisions in determining the quality of schools in Africa. The paper captures social capital by the average level of trust and ethnic divisions via an index of ethnic fractionalization. It then skirts reverse causality problems between trust
- [Does the African middle class defend democracy? Evidence from Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/does-the-african-middle-class-defend-democracy-evidence-from-kenya/) - This paper uses the case of Kenya to investigate the attitudes and behaviours of the middle class. It uses Afrobarometer survey data to explore whether there is anything distinctive about the political attitudes of the Kenyan middle class. The paper measures class in four ways: education, employment status, poverty, and wealth (assets). It then tests
- [Crowd Capital in the Governance Context](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/crowd-capital-in-the-governance-context/) - How can crowdsourcing contribute to good governance? This research builds the first database of worldwide initiatives using crowd applications for governance. It contains 209 applications, found through secondary archival sources. Many individuals and organisations are using IT to engage crowds to create resources for the governance context. The authors find that there is a wide
- [The Role of Information and Communication Technologies in Postconflict Reconstruction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-information-and-communication-technologies-in-postconflict-reconstruction/) - The report examines how policy-makers, the donor community and the private sector have prioritised and sequenced ICT initiatives in the aftermath of conflict. In addition, the report proposes a conceptual framework to understand how ICTs can contribute to improving service delivery and assisting with nation-building. In this summary report and a series of country case
- [Analysing Child Poverty and Deprivation in sub-Saharan Africa: Cross Country Multiple Overlapping Deprivation Analysis](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/analysing-child-poverty-and-deprivation-in-sub-saharan-africa-cross-country-multiple-overlapping-deprivation-analysis/) - This paper analyses multidimensional child deprivation across thirty countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The main objective of the paper is to present a direct method of child poverty measurement analysing deprivations experienced by the child. It applies the Multiple Overlapping Deprivation Analysis (MODA) methodology that measures aspects of child poverty, adapted to allow comparability across countries.
- [Striving for Better Jobs: The Challenge of Informality in the Middle East and North Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/striving-for-better-jobs-the-challenge-of-informality-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/) - Economic growth has been sustained for many years pre-crisis in the region, but this has not resulted in the creation of an adequate number of jobs and has succeeded, at best, in generating low-quality, informal jobs. This World Bank report addresses one margin of exclusion: informal employment and the vulnerabilities and lack of opportunities associated
- [Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/redistribution-inequality-and-growth/) - This paper examines the relationship between inequality, redistribution and growth. Earlier work on the inequality-growth relationship has generally confounded the effects of redistribution and inequality. The focus of this study is on the medium and long term, both growth over five-year periods and the duration of growth spells. This paper is the first to make
- [Governance and Poverty Reduction: Evidence from Newly Decentralised Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/governance-and-poverty-reduction-evidence-from-newly-decentralised-indonesia/) - How has Indonesia sustained poverty reduction in the face of prolonged bad governance? What effect has the 1997 economic crisis had? This study, from the SMERU Research Institute, is the first attempt to examine the impact of bad governance practices in Indonesia on poverty reduction. The literature on governance and poverty reduction is reviewed, SMERU
- [Realising the Potential of  Civil Society-led South-South Development Cooperation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/realising-the-potential-of-civil-society-led-south-south-development-cooperation/) - Civil Society Organisations from the BRICS countries and Mexico are leading a huge range of South-South Development Cooperation (SSDC) initiatives. New research shows how these initiatives are promoting social accountability, supporting post-disaster reconstruction and effectively sharing rural and urban development knowledge. Given this experience and expertise, these organisations have a significant role to play in
- [Rights and social action for risk management: Reflections on local, national and international roles and responses](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rights-and-social-action-for-risk-management-reflections-on-local-national-and-international-roles-and-responses/) - This report explores the links between risk management, rights and collective action through a set of case studies. Risk is defined here as the possibility of loss. Case studies involving elements of social mobilisation across Ecuador; Bangladesh; Brazil; South Africa and Zimbabwe demonstrate ways in which the language and practice of human rights can support
- [Did Aid Promote Democracy in Africa? The Role of Technical Assistance in Africa’s Transitions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/did-aid-promote-democracy-in-africa-the-role-of-technical-assistance-in-africas-transitions/) - This paper argues that while aid has increased resources available for patronage in earlier periods, it also increased the extent to which donors paid attention to government spending and corruption, making it more costly for governments to use foreign aid for patronage. Specifically, it argues that when donors invest in policies that increase monitoring, measured
- [Income inequality in Latin America: Recent decline and prospects for its further reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/income-inequality-in-latin-america-recent-decline-and-prospects-for-its-further-reduction/) - The paper reviews the extent of the income inequality decline that took place in Latin America in 2002-10 and then focuses on the factors that may explain such decline. These include a lowered skill premium following an expansion of secondary education among the poor, and the adoption of more equalising tax, labour market subsidies and
- [Fiscal Responsibility Laws for Subnational Discipline: The Latin American Experience](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fiscal-responsibility-laws-for-subnational-discipline-the-latin-american-experience/) - Why and when might Fiscal Responsibility Laws (FRLs) be useful? Can FRLs encourage diverse governments to avoid overusing the common national credit market, or help individual governments make a time-consistent commitment for fiscal prudence? This World Bank Policy Research Working Paper examines FRLs in Latin America, with special attention to their provisions for fiscal discipline
- [Synthesis Study on Supporting Decentralisation and Local Government – Lessons Learned, Good Practices and Emerging Issues](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/synthesis-study-on-supporting-decentralisation-and-local-government-lessons-learned-good-practices-and-emerging-issues/) - Over the past two decades, support to decentralisation and local governance has become a major field of international development co-operation. A vast majority of less developed countries are pursuing decentralisation policies that devolve functions and responsibilities to local governments. This study by the Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Planning (NIBR) provides a synthesis of
- [Approaches to Decentralisation in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/approaches-to-decentralisation-in-developing-countries/) - How can decentralisation in its various forms be achieved without compromising expenditure control or accountability for achieving performance? Decentralisation in developing countries is viewed as a critical mechanism for aligning public expenditures with local priorities, for improving management incentives and for improving accountability to users close to the point of service delivery. However many governments
- [Aid, Policies, and Growth: Revisiting the Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/aid-policies-and-growth-revisiting-the-evidence/) - Aid accelerates growth in developing countries with sound institutions and policies, but has less or no effect in countries with poor institutions and policies? Evidence has supported this theory and a growing trend toward greater ‘selectivity’ – channelling relatively more aid resources to poor countries with reasonably good institutions and policies, has been recognised. However
- [Local Governance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/local-governance/) - When it works well, democratic decentralisation has many virtues. It almost always stimulates greater popular participation and civil society activity; it also increases transparency and uptake of government services and enhances accountability. Most crucially, strong decentralised systems can make government more responsive. However, it seldom works well, with successful examples being limited to Bolivia, the
- [Handbook on Parliamentarians and Policies to Reduce Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/handbook-on-parliamentarians-and-policies-to-reduce-poverty/) - In recent years the poor have begun to find ways to make their voices heard. Their criticisms of parliaments have often been bitter, even as international and national policies increasingly focus on poverty reduction. This handbook was produced by the Parliamentary Centre of Canada and the World Bank Institute. It represents the outcome of the
- [Peacemaking and Mediation: Dynamics of a Changing Field](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/peacemaking-and-mediation-dynamics-of-a-changing-field/) - This paper from the International Peace Institute suggests that peacemaking will remain a central requirement for managing conflict and identifies some of the critical challenges for peacemakers. It identifies areas of consensus within the peacemaking field, highlights continuing debates, and discusses ‘new emphases’ that affect the way state-based or unofficial peacemakers operate. Capacity building for
- [Women as Policy Makers: Evidence from a Randomized Policy Experiment in India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/women-as-policy-makers-evidence-from-a-randomized-policy-experiment-in-india/) - Relative to their share in the population, women are under-represented in all political positions. Compared to economic opportunities, education and legal rights, political representation is the area in which the gap between men and women narrowed the least between 1995 and 2000. Political reservations for women are often proposed as a way to rapidly enhance
- [Determinants of Decentralisation within Russian Regions, Local Government and Public Service Initiative](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/determinants-of-decentralisation-within-russian-regions-local-government-and-public-service-initiative/) - The development of democratic and effective government at sub-national levels remains one of the central tasks of transition in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. This document from the Local Government and Public Service Initiative attempts to empirically explore the extent and variation of fiscal decentralisation in the sub-national sector in Russia
- [Evaluating the Impact of Development Projects on Poverty: A Handbook for Practitioners](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/evaluating-the-impact-of-development-projects-on-poverty-a-handbook-for-practitioners/) - There is broad evidence that developmental assistance benefits the poor, but how can we tell if specific projects are working? Have resources been spent effectively? What would have happened without intervention? This comprehensive handbook from Directions in Development seeks to provide tools for evaluating project impact. It advises that effective evaluations require financial and political
- [Evaluation of Citizens' Voice and Accountability: Review of the Literature and Donor Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/evaluation-of-citizens-voice-and-accountability-review-of-the-literature-and-donor-approaches/) - How can the effectiveness of voice and accountability (V&A) interventions be assessed? This paper from the Department for International Development (DFID) reviews the strategy and policy documents of seven DAC donors in order to contribute to the design of a V&A evaluation framework. Donors need to give higher priority to evaluation research and the development
- [Improving Impact Evaluation Production and Use](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/improving-impact-evaluation-production-and-use/) - What can be learned from the many impact evaluations (IEs) carried out by development agencies in recent years? This review highlights the need and growing demand for greater and more strategic coordination of IE efforts, and notes insufficient attention to diverse methodological approaches to evaluation. It is important in all policy sectors to reflect on
- [Evaluation: Why, for Whom and How?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/evaluation-why-for-whom-and-how/) - This article discusses theoretical approaches to evaluation and draws on experiences from agriculture and health. It notes that different stakeholders may have varying expectations of an evaluation and that alternative approaches to evaluation are more suited to meeting some objectives than others. Randomised controlled trials, or well-designed quasi-experimental studies, probably provide the most persuasive evidence
- [Partnerships for Reform: Civil Society and the Administration of Justice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/partnerships-for-reform-civil-society-and-the-administration-of-justice/) - The Partnerships for Reform booklet aims to provide a judicial context and criteria for new or evolving judicial-reform NGOs. It also examines points for the judiciary to consider when dealing with civil society. Universal experience shows that no single route or system exists in forming lasting and effective partnerships between the courts and the community,
- [Development, NGOs and Civil Society: the Debate and its Future](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/development-ngos-and-civil-society-the-debate-and-its-future/) - What is the relationship between development, NGOs and civil society? What were the key developments in the debate surrounding this relationship during the 1990s and what is their impact on the future for NGOs and development? These are questions addressed in this introductory chapter to a reader on development, NGOs and civil society.Development debates in
- [Sourcebook on Building Partnerships with Civil Society Organisations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/sourcebook-on-building-partnerships-with-civil-society-organisations/) - The growth of civil society organisations (CSOs) is witnessed in their increasing range and collective power on the international arena. This sourcebook, produced by the Civil Society Organisations Division of the United Nations Development Programme, advocates enhanced co-operation between UNDP and CSOs, leading to mutual benefits for both parties. CSOs can make a positive contribution
- [Manufacturing Civil Society from the Outside: Donor Interventions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/manufacturing-civil-society-from-the-outside-donor-interventions/) - How have donor concepts of civil society been operationalised? What dilemmas and contradictions do donors face in attempting to create and strengthen civil society from the outside? This chapter from the book ‘Civil Society and Development: A Critical Exploration’ traces the specific paths leading different donors to engage with the concept of civil society, and
- [Agents for Change: Civil Society Roles in Preventing War & Building Peace](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/agents-for-change-civil-society-roles-in-preventing-war-building-peace/) - What roles and functions can civil society play in preventing war and building peace? This paper provides an in-depth review of these roles and functions. It also provides an overview of the key challenges facing the wider field of civil society working for peace.This paper is based on the experiences and discussions undertaken through the
- [Multi-donor Support to Civil Society and Engaging with 'Non-traditional' Civil Society](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/multi-donor-support-to-civil-society-and-engaging-with-non-traditional-civil-society/) - Do multi-donor support mechanisms scale up and enhance the effectiveness of civil society engagement with the state? This paper from the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) analyses multi-donor support models and partnerships with ‘non-traditional’ civil society. The decision to move from bilateral to multi-donor support of civil society organisations (CSOs) involves a trade-off between direct donor
- [Relationships Matter for Supporting Change in Favour of Poor People](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/relationships-matter-for-supporting-change-in-favour-of-poor-people/) - What role does influencing play in bringing about pro poor change? Are current international donors spending too much time managing their budgets and not enough time managing relationships? This paper by the Institute of Development Studies examines the role of organisational learning in improving the performance of international development organisations. A number of approaches are
- [Towards a New Model of PPPs: Can Public Private Partnerships Deliver Basic Services to the Poor?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/towards-a-new-model-of-ppps-can-public-private-partnerships-deliver-basic-services-to-the-poor/) - This paper from the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific examines the difficulties of reaching the poor through Public Private Partnerships (PPPs). However, case studies show that 'pro-poor PPPs' are possible; they need to incorporate some of the strategies and methods of the informal sector, and include civil society organisations
- [Partnerships with the Private Sector in Health: What the International Community Can Do to Strengthen Health Systems in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/partnerships-with-the-private-sector-in-health-what-the-international-community-can-do-to-strengthen-health-systems-in-developing-countries/) - Can and should the international community help developing-country governments engage with the private components of their health systems? This report presents the findings of a working group hosted by the Center for Global Development (2008-2009) to examine this question. The working group examined the need for support in this area, and conducted interviews with a
- [Donor Partnerships with Business for Private Sector Development: What can we Learn from Experience?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/donor-partnerships-with-business-for-private-sector-development-what-can-we-learn-from-experience/) - This review gives structure to the theme of donor partnerships with business aimed at private sector development. It proposes a focus on key issues that have received little attention so far: assessing additionality, measuring partnership results, and achieving better outcomes based on learning from experience. The report examined evidence from a variety of partnerships between
- [Humanitarian crises, emergency preparedness and response: the role of business and the private sector - a strategy and options analysis of Haiti](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/humanitarian-crises-emergency-preparedness-and-response-the-role-of-business-and-the-private-sector-a-strategy-and-options-analysis-of-haiti/) - This paper analyses the role of the private sector in humanitarian action in Haiti, with a particular focus on the response to the devastating earthquake that struck Port-au-Prince in 2010. During the response, international and Haitian businesses participated in humanitarian efforts – both directly assisting populations and working with aid agencies – for commercial and
- [Child Rights Programming: How to Apply Rights-Based Approaches in Programming](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/child-rights-programming-how-to-apply-rights-based-approaches-in-programming/) - What is the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and how can it be used in development programming? This handbook from Save the Children demonstrates how the CRC can be used as the basis for the project cycle and efforts for advocacy and change. It promotes the Child Rights Programming (CRP) approach and
- [Rights-Based Approaches to Tackling Discrimination and Horizontal Inequality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rights-based-approaches-to-tackling-discrimination-and-horizontal-inequality/) - How can discrimination and horizontal inequality be combated? Many societies exhibit strong horizontal inequality, meaning gaps in well-being between clearly defined groups (for example, along lines of gender or ethnicity). Frequently, a lack of respect for equal rights and difficulties in claiming entitlements are major factors underlying poverty, contributing to economic and social exclusion. This
- [A Rights-Based Approach to Reproductive Health](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-rights-based-approach-to-reproductive-health/) - Effectively addressing reproductive health problems calls for an integrated, rights-based approach that draws on the fields of health, ethics, law and human rights. This approach can provide analytical tools to identify root causes and inequities, shape humane and effective programmes and policies, and pressure governments into working proactively. This issue of Outlook, published by PATH,
- [Whose Needs are Right? Refugees, Oustees and the Challenges of Rights-Based Approaches in Forced Migration](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/whose-needs-are-right-refugees-oustees-and-the-challenges-of-rights-based-approaches-in-forced-migration/) - Uprootedness characterises the lives of millions of people globally and is likely to increase in the 21st century as economic globalisation, violence and conflict continue. How can practical interventions minimise the injustices faced by refugees and oustees? Compiled for the Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty, this paper explores the growing literature in
- [Human Rights-Based Reviews of UNDP Programmes: Working Guidelines](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/human-rights-based-reviews-of-undp-programmes-working-guidelines/) - The UN operates a Common Understanding of the human rights-based approach to development (HRBA). This United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)paper sets out working guidelines for a human rights-based review of UNDP country offices and projects based on the Common Understanding. The guidelines aim to support reviews at each phase of programming, strengthen existing activities and
- [Promoting Rights-Based Approaches: Experiences and Ideas from Asia and the Pacific](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/promoting-rights-based-approaches-experiences-and-ideas-from-asia-and-the-pacific/) - What is a rights-based approach (RBA)? How can rights-based programming be translated into practical project and programme tools? This manual from Save the Children Sweden (SCS) is a collection of articles introducing RBAs and presenting practical advice on application, case studies and innovative tools for implementing RBAs. It concludes with a list of web resources
- [Manual on Rights-based Education: Global Human Rights Requirements Made Simple](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/manual-on-rights-based-education-global-human-rights-requirements-made-simple/) - How can rights-based strategies be used for furthering the goal of Education for All (EFA) by 2015? This manual by, United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), strives to mainstream human rights in education in order to contribute to both to EFA and to the fulfilment of the right to education. It highlights the
- [Rights-based Approaches and Bilateral Aid Agencies: More than a Metaphor?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rights-based-approaches-and-bilateral-aid-agencies-more-than-a-metaphor/) - Are human rights-based approaches to development merely a 'metaphor', or is a consensus emerging among bilateral donors around the relevance of human rights for aid? This article, based on research by the Overseas Development Institute, illustrates emerging commonalities among bilateral aid agencies. However, donors need to make greater efforts to internalise human rights and to
- [Integrating Human Rights and Poverty Reduction: Towards a Human Rights-Based Approach for SDC](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/integrating-human-rights-and-poverty-reduction-towards-a-human-rights-based-approach-for-sdc/) - How can the Swiss Agency for Development and Co-operation (SDC) incorporate human rights more systematically into its development programmes? This research, by SDC, sets out current thinking on integrating human rights into development with a view to taking its human rights work forward. It affirms that democracy, development and respect for human rights and fundamental
- [Rights-Based Approaches to Social Protection](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rights-based-approaches-to-social-protection/) - What can rights based approaches (RBAs) offer to social protection agendas? This paper from the Overseas Development Institute is part of a project commissioned by DFID to assist the development of an institutional policy and approach to social protection programming. It explores the relationship between human rights standards, principles and programming and policies and interventions
- [A Rights-Based Approach to Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-rights-based-approach-to-development/) - How can the rights-based approach (RBA) change how development is 'done', and help practitioners do things better on the ground? RBAs have often been seen as primarily rhetorical and as offering little in hard content. This chapter from 'Human Rights and Development' outlines what the RBA means in practice, and how this differs from current
- [Governance Hybrids: Pro-Poor, Rights-based Approaches in Rural Peru](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/governance-hybrids-pro-poor-rights-based-approaches-in-rural-peru/) - How do we understand the hybrid forms of governance that occasionally emerge when rights-based approaches (RBAs) are introduced into contexts of extreme poverty? This paper from the Institute of Development Studies looks at the impact of RBAs on poverty in rural Peru. It argues that to be a useful theoretical framework, RBAs should incorporate intermediate
- [Developing a Human Rights-Based Approach to Addressing Maternal Mortality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/developing-a-human-rights-based-approach-to-addressing-maternal-mortality/) - Can a rights-based approach reduce maternal mortality? Can its focus on equity improve health outcomes for poor women? This review, by the UK Department for International Development (DFID), argues that rights-based approaches can add impetus to reducing maternal mortality. It argues that policy actors in government and civil society should find ways of addressing the
- [Rights-Based Development: The Challenge of Change and Power](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rights-based-development-the-challenge-of-change-and-power/) - What are the implications of integrating rights into development work? This paper from the Global Poverty Research Group (GPRG) draws on case study material from ActionAid International (AAI) to explore the benefits and challenges of a rights-based approach for strengthening the voice and power of marginalised sectors of society.Rights-based development is often equated primarily with
- [Rights-based Development: Linking Rights and Participation - Challenges in Thinking and Action](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rights-based-development-linking-rights-and-participation-challenges-in-thinking-and-action/) - The growing interest in pursuing rights-based approaches to development raises questions about how these two broad traditions – human rights and development – can best work together in practice. This article from a joint 7-country action research initiative carried out by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) and Just Associates, outlines the challenges and opportunities
- [Applying a Rights-based Approach: An Inspirational Guide for Civil Society](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/applying-a-rights-based-approach-an-inspirational-guide-for-civil-society/) - With its focus on law and the root causes of poverty, the rights-based approach (RBA) releases a new transformative potential for development. This guide provides practical methods for the integration of the RBA into programmes implemented by smaller civil society organisations (CSOs) in poor countries. While it is not a panacea, the RBA has the
- [Transitional Justice and Peace Building: Diagnosing and Addressing the Socioeconomic Roots of Violence through a Human Rights Framework](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transitional-justice-and-peace-building-diagnosing-and-addressing-the-socioeconomic-roots-of-violence-through-a-human-rights-framework/) - How can transitional justice mechanisms – in particular, truth commissions (TCs) – better accommodate socio-economic issues in order to respond to new cycles of violence in post-conflict settings? On the basis of comparative country experiences, this article from the International Journal of Transitional Justice argues that TCs should expand their mandates to incorporate a legal
- [Undertaking a Human Rights-Based Approach: A Guide for Basic Programming](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/undertaking-a-human-rights-based-approach-a-guide-for-basic-programming/) - What are the principles behind human rights based approaches (HRBA) to development cooperation? What lessons have been learned from HRBA internationally? This chapter provides guidelines on undertaking HRBA based on experiences from Afghanistan, Fiji, Lao, Mongolia, Thailand, Tonga, and Vietnam. There are two implementation approaches to HRBA: the cyclical Seven Step Approach and the Four
- [Social Security and the Socio-Economic Floor: Towards a Human Rights-based Approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-security-and-the-socio-economic-floor-towards-a-human-rights-based-approach/) - Globalisation triggers the need for frequent adjustment to national production processes, jobs and life strategies, and there are vast gaps in income and security between countries. The International Labour Organisation suggests that establishing a global socio-economic floor would improve international development and security. This article investigates the impact of taking a rights-based approach to a
- [Informal Justice Systems: Charting a Course for Human Rights-Based Engagement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/informal-justice-systems-charting-a-course-for-human-rights-based-engagement/) - This major study seeks to identify how engagement with informal justice systems can build greater respect and protection for human rights. The study also examines the value of informal justice systems in offering, in certain contexts, flexible structures and processes, cost-effectiveness and outreach to grassroots communities. It considers the weaknesses and strengths of different kinds
- [Human Rights-Based Approaches to Development: Concepts, Evidence, and Policy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/human-rights-based-approaches-to-development-concepts-evidence-and-policy/) - This paper assesses the benefits, risks, and limitations of human rights based approaches (HBRAs) to development, which can be catalogued on the basis of the institutional mechanisms they rely on: global compliance based on international and regional treaties; the policies and programming of donors and executive agencies; rights talk; and legal mobilisation. The paper briefly
- [Health Financing: Designing and Implementing Pro-Poor Policies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/health-financing-designing-and-implementing-pro-poor-policies/) - How should health care be financed in developing countries, and how does the system of financing impact health care for the poor? This paper written for the UK Department for International Development (DFID) by the DFID Health Systems Resource Centre (DFID HSRC) summarises what is known about the effects of the main health care financing
- [Financing Aid Management Arrangements in Post-conflict Situations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/financing-aid-management-arrangements-in-post-conflict-situations/) - What has been learned from financing post-conflict reconstruction? How should aid moneys be channelled and allocated? What is the architecture of the aid management entity of the recipient government? What is the proper interaction among donors and between donors and the government in post-conflict settings? How can the dilemma between short-term urgencies and longer-term institutional
- [Financing and Aid Management Arrangements in Post-Conflict Situations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/financing-and-aid-management-arrangements-in-post-conflict-situations/) - What does the the international experience with post-conflict reconstruction tell us about financing modalities and aid arrangements in post-conflict situations? Are there a series of recommendations that emerge from the experiences of post conflict countries? This paper written on behalf of the World Bank looks at the experience of aid funds in four post-conflict environments.
- [Financing Social Protection](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/financing-social-protection/) - What is the role of international donors in financing social protection? This paper, prepared for the Department for International Development, examines the opportunities, constraints and options available to a bilateral donor in the financing of social protection. It also considers financing of social protection by governments. Donors can play a major role in financing social
- [Education, Educators and Financing Modalities: Reflections on Experience in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-educators-and-financing-modalities-reflections-on-experience-in-uganda/) - What is the impact of external influences on national targets and plans for education in developing countries? This paper, published in the Journal of International Development, examines the impact of the trend among multilateral and bilateral donors to provide financial assistance through general budget support. Looking specifically at the case of Uganda, it argues that
- [Money in Politics: A Study of Party Financing Practices in 22 Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/money-in-politics-a-study-of-party-financing-practices-in-22-countries/) - Corruption relating to political party financing represents a serious threat to democracy and economic development. This study, by the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, analyses the current practice of political party financing in 22 countries worldwide. Legal reform aimed at tackling corruption – if supported by donors - will only be effective if accompanied
- [Review of International Financing Arrangements for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/review-of-international-financing-arrangements-for-disarmament-demobilization-and-reintegration/) - How should disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) be financed? What problems can be encountered and how can these be overcome? This paper constitutes the second part of a review from the Stockholm Initiative on Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (SIDDR). It provides a sobering assessment of the capacity of the international community as a whole to finance
- [Financing Adaptation: Opportunities for Innovation and Experimentation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/financing-adaptation-opportunities-for-innovation-and-experimentation/) - How should funding for climate change adaptation be generated, channelled and spent? This paper explores the opportunities and challenges involved in financing adaptation efforts in developing countries. Helping developing countries adapt to climate change will involve enormous resources, above those already assigned for development. Finance mechanisms that can deliver this additional level of resource need
- [Transition Financing: Building a Better Response](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transition-financing-building-a-better-response/) - How can donor agencies best provide the effective, rapid and flexible finance to post-conflict countries that is most needed? This publication outlines the findings of mapping studies on international aid in 'transition' (i.e. post-conflict) countries. In relation to transition financing, donors must reform their policies and procedures to ensure long-term but targeted support. The mix
- [Climate Financing and Development: Friends or Foes?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-financing-and-development-friends-or-foes/) - Will finance for climate change adaptation in developing countries compromise support for meeting the Millennium Development Goals? This study analyses country proposals for climate change funding put forward at recent UN-led climate change negotiations. It argues that while the aims of development and adaptation to climate change often overlap, additional funds are needed to meet
- [Financing Disaster Risk Reduction: A 20-year story of international aid](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/financing-disaster-risk-reduction-a-20-year-story-of-international-aid/) - This report analyses financing for Disaster Risk Reduction over the past 20 years. It finds that overall volumes spent on disasters are a fraction of development aid, and within that the amount committed to reduce the risk of disasters is an even smaller proportion. Financing is heavily concentrated in a relatively small number of projects
- [Fragile Reforms: World Bank and Asian Development Bank financing in fragile and conflict-affected situations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fragile-reforms-world-bank-and-asian-development-bank-financing-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations/) - Drawing from research into the delivery of five bank-financed projects covering infrastructure and other sectors, this study highlights a range of insights and opportunities to enhance how the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) approach project financing in fragile and conflict-affected situations.The study documents how conflict-sensitive approaches are and are not used by
- [Diversity in Donorship: Field Lessons](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/diversity-in-donorship-field-lessons/) - Non-western governments, which are not members of the development assistance committee (DAC) of the OECD, accounted for 12% of humanitarian financing for any given year between 1999 and 2004. In this study, the Humanitarian Policy Group of the Overseas Development Institute examines how these donors operate in the field. The study examines three emergency responses:
- [Conflict Management in Complex Humanitarian Situations: Peacemaking and Peacebuilding Work with Angolan IDPs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conflict-management-in-complex-humanitarian-situations-peacemaking-and-peacebuilding-work-with-angolan-idps/) - What is the role of internally displaced people (IDPs) in peacemaking and peacebuilding in complex humanitarian situations? This field report, published in the Journal of Refugee Studies, analyses the strategies used by the Luanda-based Centre for Common Ground (CCG) and IDPs in conflict resolution in Angola. IDPs must play a central role in conflict management
- [Displaced Women and Girls at Risk: Risk Factors, Protection Solutions and Resource Tools](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/displaced-women-and-girls-at-risk-risk-factors-protection-solutions-and-resource-tools/) - Why do large numbers of displaced women and girls continue to be abused, raped and exploited? This paper from the Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children explores risks facing displaced women and how to address them. Women and girls must be involved in their own protection. Their communities, including the men, must be similarly
- [Addressing Internal Displacement in Peace Processes, Peace Agreements and Peace-Building](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/addressing-internal-displacement-in-peace-processes-peace-agreements-and-peace-building/) - How can internal displacement best be integrated into peace processes, peace agreements and peacebuilding? This report from the Brookings-Bern Project on Internal Displacement contends that resolving displacement is strongly connected to achieving peace, especially in cases of large-scale displacement. Assisting displaced people to return and reintegrate has the potential both to address the root causes
- [Internal Displacement: Global Overview of Trends and Developments in 2006](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/internal-displacement-global-overview-of-trends-and-developments-in-2006/) - This is the only comprehensive and regularly published account of the global conflict-induced internal displacement situation. In addition to an analysis of developments at the global level, the report also provides overviews of regional and thematic trends. It aims to raise awareness of the still often-overlooked plight of some 25 million internally displaced persons (IDPs)
- [When Displacement Ends: A Framework for Durable Solutions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/when-displacement-ends-a-framework-for-durable-solutions/) - When does displacement end? The way the question is answered and addressed can have serious ramifications for internally displaced persons (IDPs). It can lead to the termination of assistance and a shift of attention away from the particular risks and vulnerabilities associated with internal displacement. Alternatively, especially in protracted situations, insistence that people remain “IDPs”
- [Displaced Children's Participation in Political Violence: Towards Greater Understanding of Mobilisation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/displaced-childrens-participation-in-political-violence-towards-greater-understanding-of-mobilisation/) - How should children who participate in political violence be seen in terms of agency and competence? How do the experiences of young people in displacement camps contribute to their involvement in political violence? This article from Conflict, Security and Development examines the mobilisation of children for political violence in terms of the dynamics of displacement
- [Conflict, Arms, and Militarization:  The Dynamics of Darfur’s  IDP Camps](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conflict-arms-and-militarization-the-dynamics-of-darfurs-idp-camps/) - What factors cause Internally Displaced Person (IDP) camps to become militarised? This paper looks at the case of Darfur and finds that different contexts of its IDP and refugee gatherings determine the extent and nature of militaristic activity within them.The paper draws on information from a wide range of sources including human rights reports, humanitarian
- [In Search of Shelter: Mapping the Effects of Climate Change on Human Migration and Displacement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/in-search-of-shelter-mapping-the-effects-of-climate-change-on-human-migration-and-displacement/) - To what extent is climate change causing – and is likely to cause – the displacement and migration of people around the world? How should policymakers respond? This report draws on empirical evidence from a first-time, multi-continent survey of environmental change and migration. It argues that climate-related migration and displacement can be successfully addressed only
- [War on the Displaced: Sri Lankan Army and LTTE Abuses against Civilians in the Vanni](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/war-on-the-displaced-sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-in-the-vanni/) - During their decade-long civil war, Sri Lankan forces and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) appeared to be competing in a contest to demonstrate the greatest disregard for civilians. This Human Rights Watch publication recounts human rights abuses of civilians in the Vanni region perpetrated by both Sri Lankan parties and calls for an
- [Displacing Insecurity in a Divided World: Global Security, International Development and the Endless Accumulation of Capital](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/displacing-insecurity-in-a-divided-world-global-security-international-development-and-the-endless-accumulation-of-capital/) - What are the socio-economic and ecological effects of mass-production in the South for the purpose of matching mass-consumption in the North? This Third World Quarterly article examines the two levels of the process of displacement, which in the current global capitalist order inherently displaces insecurity onto marginalised populations in order to reproduce the social conditions
- [Working Paper on Preventing and Responding to Sexual Violence against Women Displaced by Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/working-paper-on-preventing-and-responding-to-sexual-violence-against-women-displaced-by-conflict/) - This working paper considers ways to enhance the capacity of UN agencies, host governments, donors and civil society to prevent and respond to sexual violence against women displaced by conflict. From March-May 2010, the Civil Society Advisory Group to the UN on Women, Peace and Security (CSAG) reviewed a wide variety of reports and projects,
- [Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General on the human rights of internally displaced persons:  Framework on Durable Solutions for Internally Displaced Persons](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/report-of-the-representative-of-the-secretary-general-on-the-human-rights-of-internally-displaced-persons-framework-on-durable-solutions-for-internally-displaced-persons/) - Displacement is a life-changing event. While the experience of displacement cannot be undone, internally displaced persons (IDPs) need to be able to resume a normal life by achieving a durable solution.This report sets out a framework on durable solutions for internally displaced persons. It is organised around four questions: what is a durable solution for
- [Transitional Justice and Displacement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transitional-justice-and-displacement/) - How does transitional justice fit within broader responses to the problem of displacement? Conflict-induced displacement is an important factor in contexts in which transitional justice operates, yet displacement has received little attention in the literature and practice of transitional justice. This article argues that transitional justice can and should address displacement, but in doing so
- [Refugees and IDPs after Conflict: Why They Do Not Go Home](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/refugees-and-idps-after-conflict-why-they-do-not-go-home/) - National and international programmes to return refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) to their homes after conflict frequently leave far too many without viable futures. Using Bosnia, Afghanistan, Iraq and Burundi as case studies, this paper argues that the effects of protracted conflict and displacement mean that, for many, returning home is not a viable
- [World Disasters Report 2012: Focus on forced migration and displacement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/world-disasters-report-2012-focus-on-forced-migration-and-displacement/) - Over 70 million people are forced migrants displaced by conflict, political upheaval, violence and disasters but also by climate change and development projects. Although rapid-onset events such as conflict or disaster may be the immediate reason forcing people to leave their homes, the search for better economic opportunities, slow-onset and progressive environmental deterioration, increasing suppression
- [Call Detail Records: The use of mobile phone data to track and predict population displacement in disasters](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/call-detail-records-the-use-of-mobile-phone-data-to-track-and-predict-population-displacement-in-disasters/) - Information about the displacement of people after disasters is crucial in determining the scale and impact of the emergency, and is vital for conducting humanitarian needs assessment on the ground. Methods to forecast or detect such migration are however very limited at present. However, this paper suggests that geo-referenced mobile phone call data could help
- [Sanctuary in the city? Urban displacement and vulnerability](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/sanctuary-in-the-city-urban-displacement-and-vulnerability/) - Little is known about how displaced people negotiate the urban environment, their relationships with host communities and governance institutions and their specific vulnerabilities as compared with other urban residents. This report collates the main findings of a two-year research project, which involved seven in-depth case studies – Nairobi, Kenya; Yei, South Sudan; Damascus, Syria; Amman,
- [Writing the ‘Other’ into humanitarian discourse: framing theory and practice in South–South humanitarian responses to forced displacement](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/writing-the-other-into-humanitarian-discourse-framing-theory-and-practice-in-south-south-humanitarian-responses-to-forced-displacement/) - Although Southern-led development initiatives have enjoyed increasing attention by academics in recent years, there remains a relative paucity of research on South-South humanitarian responses. This paper investigates South-South humanitarian action because of the potential it has to demand a radical reconceptualization of dominant humanitarian theory. A preliminary mapping exercise was undertaken as part of a
- [Disaster-related displacement risk: Measuring the risk and addressing its drivers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disaster-related-displacement-risk-measuring-the-risk-and-addressing-its-drivers/) - This report applies the concept of risk to disaster-related displacement and quantifies human displacement risk around the world. It reflects an awareness of the need to see disasters as primarily social, rather than natural, phenomena. This view acknowledges that humans can act and take decisions to reduce the likelihood of a disaster occurring or, at
- [(Re)Imagining Coexistence: Striving for Sustainable Return, Reintegration and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/reimagining-coexistence-striving-for-sustainable-return-reintegration-and-reconciliation-in-bosnia-and-herzegovina/) - How can international and local actors facilitate the sustainable return of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) to societies that have experienced violent inter-group conflict? What steps can be taken to renew coexistence and rebuild trust in areas of return? This article published in the International Journal of Transitional Justice explores initiatives designed to repair
- [The Road to the New Deal](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-road-to-the-new-deal/) - This report is a collection of working papers which were produced for the IDPS to help foster discussion at the four Working Groups that met between November 2010 and May 2011. The recommendations produced from these working papers and the discussions during the Working Groups meetings were used to produce the new Deal for Engagement
- [Participating in Development? Refugee Protection, Politics and Developmental Approaches to Refugee Management in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/participating-in-development-refugee-protection-politics-and-developmental-approaches-to-refugee-management-in-uganda/) - This article, published in the Third World Quarterly, examines the ‘Self-Reliance Strategy’ implemented by the Government of Uganda and UNHCR for long-term Sudanese refugees in Uganda, which seeks to move from a relief to a development approach. However, the prospects for success are limited by ongoing conflict in northern Uganda and the lack of rights
- [Protracted Refugee Situations and the Regional Dynamics of Peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/protracted-refugee-situations-and-the-regional-dynamics-of-peacebuilding/) - What are the links between the prolonged presence of refugee populations and fragile states? How can protracted refugee situations contribute to conflict, instability and effective peacebuilding? This article explores the challenges posed by protracted refugee situations to human rights and security. The question of refugees has been largely absent from the international political agenda and
- [The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees: Remittance Sending Practices amongst Somalis in Norway](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-transnational-political-engagements-of-refugees-remittance-sending-practices-amongst-somalis-in-norway/) - How do diaspora groups seek to influence political developments in their home countries? What can be learned from the engagement of Somalis living in Norway with conflict and reconciliation processes in the Somali territories? This article from Conflict, Security and Development shows that the Norwegian Somali diaspora engages primarily on a sub-national level – through
- [From “Refugee Warriors” to “Returnee Warriors”: Militant Homecoming in Afghanistan and Beyond](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/from-refugee-warriors-to-returnee-warriors-militant-homecoming-in-afghanistan-and-beyond/) - Why do some refugees, upon return to their countries of origin, engage in violent action? This paper from George Mason University assumes that in some refugee situations a significant share of returnees engage in militant action. It examines three sets of explanatory factors (enabling environment, ideology and organisation) in order to contribute to an expanding
- [Failed Responsibility: Iraqi Refugees in Syria, Jordan and Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/failed-responsibility-iraqi-refugees-in-syria-jordan-and-lebanon/) - This report argues that, in managing the problem of the refugee wave that has washed over Jordan, Syria and Lebanon, and severely strained these resource-poor states, the international community and the Iraq government have failed in their responsibilities. The refugees have confronted distressing conditions, as savings dwindled, and hosts toughened policies. Host countries must provide
- [Shifting Sands: Changing gender roles among refugees in Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/shifting-sands-changing-gender-roles-among-refugees-in-lebanon/) - This report, based on a rapid gender situation and vulnerability assessment, finds that many refugee men are experiencing severe stress and feelings of powerlessness because they are unable to fulfil their traditional role as family provider and protector. Many refugee women and girls no longer have access to the resources and services they used to
- [Out of the Frying Pan into the Fire? Migration from Fragile States to Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/out-of-the-frying-pan-into-the-fire-migration-from-fragile-states-to-fragile-states/) - Fragile states contributed 18 million migrants and 8 million refugees in 2000. More than 20% of these migrants and more than half of the refugees settle in other fragile states. Thus, migration is likely to be both a consequence and a possible cause of conflict and fragility. This paper asks why people from fragile states
- [Conflict Dimensions of International Assistance to Refugees from Syria in Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conflict-dimensions-of-international-assistance-to-refugees-from-syria-in-lebanon/) - This discussion paper explores a selected number of key areas of potential interaction of international assistance provided to refugees from Syria with conflict dynamics in Lebanon. It focuses on international assistance delivered inside Lebanon and does not cover aid programmes destined for Syria or other neighbouring countries. It aims to facilitate a discussion among policy
- [Shifting Sands: The Search for 'Coherence' Between Political and Humanitarian Responses to Complex Emergencies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/shifting-sands-the-search-for-coherence-between-political-and-humanitarian-responses-to-complex-emergencies/) - The early 1990s saw an increase in calls to enhance the coherence of political and humanitarian action. With a growing sense of mutual distrust from humanitarian and political actors, this paper seeks to detail the findings of a six month study on the politics of coherence, and particularly to understand the precise character of the
- [Humanitarian Response Review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/humanitarian-response-review/) - This independent report assesses the humanitarian response capacities of the UN, NGOs, Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement, the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), and other key humanitarian actors. It identifies capacity gaps, and makes recommendations to address them. The major gap identified is organisations’ low level of preparedness in terms of human resources and sectoral capacities.The
- [Meeting the Urban Challenge: Adapting humanitarian efforts to an urban world](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/meeting-the-urban-challenge-adapting-humanitarian-efforts-to-an-urban-world-2/) - This report is based on the discussion held at the 27th Meeting of the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP) and on a review of recent literature on humanitarian responses to urban crises. The document discusses the humanitarian response to rapid urbanisation and identifies ways in which the humanitarian system
- [Responding to Urban Disasters: Learning from Previous Relief and Recovery Operations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/responding-to-urban-disasters-learning-from-previous-relief-and-recovery-operations/) - The need for humanitarian response in urban areas is increasing with rapid urban growth, threats to cities from extreme weather and several other factors. However, urban areas present unique challenges in terms of complexity and scale with respect to humanitarian response. This is because many of the existing ways of working were originally developed to
- [Missed opportunities: the case for strengthening national and local partnership-based humanitarian responses](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/missed-opportunities-the-case-for-strengthening-national-and-local-partnership-based-humanitarian-responses/) - Partnerships with national and local actors have long been identified as a source of problems in international humanitarian aid. Major evaluations of numerous high profile humanitarian crises have identified insufficient investment in, and commitment to, such partnerships as the biggest hindrance to effective performance. Efforts to work with national and local actors do not play
- [Business engagement in humanitarian response and disaster risk management](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/business-engagement-in-humanitarian-response-and-disaster-risk-management/) - Companies, as commercial providers of products and services, have always played a significant role in the humanitarian system, in particular local companies in communities affected by crises. Humanitarian organizations regularly subcontract such firms in a commercial, for-profit manner to implement a vast array of humanitarian services, such as construction, logistics and security and monitoring services.
- [Real Innovation or Second-Best Solution? First experiences from results-based aid for fiscal decentralisation in Ghana and Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/real-innovation-or-second-best-solution-first-experiences-from-results-based-aid-for-fiscal-decentralisation-in-ghana-and-tanzania/) - This paper systematically records first experiences with results-based aid (RBA) for fiscal decentralisation in Ghana and Tanzania. Results-based aid is an innovative aid modality that links funding to the achievement of pre-agreed results, based on a contract between the donor and the recipient country. The study finds that the modality holds great potential in incentivising
- [Citizen Voice and State Accountability: Towards Theories of Change that Embrace Contextual Dynamics](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/citizen-voice-and-state-accountability-towards-theories-of-change-that-embrace-contextual-dynamics/) - This paper argues that current approaches to Theories of Change (ToCs) are inadequate for citizen voice and accountability (CV&A) interventions: linear ToCs do not capture the complex and dynamic realities of state-citizen relations and of the influences of the wider context on these interactions. It suggests a model for developing ToCs that are better grounded
- [Review of the Use of 'Theory of Change' in International Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/review-of-the-use-of-theory-of-change-in-international-development/) - How is 'Theory of Change' (ToC) being used in international development? What are the areas of consensus, debate and innovation? This review notes that ToC can inspire and support programme improvement, helping to develop more realistic and feasible interventions that are responsive to dynamic contexts. It finds that ToC requires both logical thinking and deeper
- [Understanding Theory of Change in International Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/understanding-theory-of-change-in-international-development/) - This paper reviews the concepts and debates within donor, agency and expert guidance ‘Theory of Change’ (ToC) documents. It finds confusion surrounding ToC definitions and use, but that ToC is commonly understood as an articulation of how and why a given intervention will lead to specific change. The paper identifies four main (overlapping) purposes of
- [Theories of Change in international development: communication, learning, or accountability?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/theories-of-change-in-international-development-communication-learning-or-accountability/) - The Theory of Change approach – an increasingly popular management tool and discourse in development – aims to challenge and change implicit assumptions in world views and programmes, yet little is known about the extent to which it really does so. This paper analyses how Theories of Change are used in the day-to-day practice of
- [Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realisation of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/voluntary-guidelines-to-support-the-progressive-realisation-of-the-right-to-adequate-food-in-the-context-of-national-food-security/) - What steps are necessary to realise the goal of adequate food for all? The Intergovernmental Working Group (IGWG) of the Council of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations has drawn up the following voluntary guidelines to support Member Nations' efforts to achieve the realisation of the right to adequate food in the
- [Gender Equality and Food Security: Women’s Empowerment as a Tool against Hunger](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-equality-and-food-security-womens-empowerment-as-a-tool-against-hunger/) - Women and girls worldwide face many inequities and constraints, often embedded in norms and practices and encoded in legal provisions. Some laws, such as those governing access to land, include inequitable and exclusionary provisions, thus institutionalizing discrimination. Where such legislative measures are not in place, customary rules and practices often have restrictive consequences for women
- [The Demographic Impact of HIV/AIDS](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-demographic-impact-of-hivaids/) - What is the demographic impact of AIDS in the world today? Where has it had the most devastating effect? This research by the United Nations Population Division assesses life expectancy and population growth in AIDS stricken countries.As part of its research work programme, the United Nations Population Division studies the demographic impact of AIDS in
- [Urban Economic Growth, Governance and Poverty: A Comparative City Review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/urban-economic-growth-governance-and-poverty-a-comparative-city-review/) - What is the relationship between urban economic growth and poverty reduction? What factors stimulate growth, and do they help alleviate poverty? This paper from the University of Birmingham analyses trends in nine cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. It argues that the actions of municipal governments and civil society organisations can encourage growth, but
- [Challenges of Providing Health Services to the Urban Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/challenges-of-providing-health-services-to-the-urban-poor/) - In addition to its legal constituencies, the municipal authorities of Taytay provide health services to the people of Lupang Arenda, and to numerous other squatters. However, what are the difficulties of reaching these people? What has the Municipal Health Office done to improve these people’s access to essential health services? This article from the Philippines
- [Urban Governance, Accountability and Poverty: The Politics of Participatory Budgeting in Recife](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/urban-governance-accountability-and-poverty-the-politics-of-participatory-budgeting-in-recife/) - Brazil has recently adopted participatory budgeting (PB) as part of its democratisation programme. But does PB increase the capacity of excluded social groups to influence the decision-making process in the allocation of public resources? This report from the University of Birmingham on PB in Recife, Brazil argues that it does. Also, PB increases access for
- [Universal(ly Bad) Service:  Providing Infrastructure Services to Rural and Poor Urban Consumers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/universally-bad-service-providing-infrastructure-services-to-rural-and-poor-urban-consumers/) - Utility services (telecommunications, power, water and gas) throughout the world were traditionally provided by large, usually state-owned, monopolies. However, encouraged by technological change, regulatory innovation and pressure from international organisations, many developing countries are privatising state-owned companies and introducing competition. Some observers worry that even if reforms improve efficiency, they might compromise an important public
- [The Role of the Non-State Sector in Urban Water Supply](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-the-non-state-sector-in-urban-water-supply/) - Water is a good with considerable positive externalities. Since governments have failed to ensure an effective access to this good and have failed to meet the needs of the urban poor, there is increasing need for the non-state sector to play this role; but, how can private sector operators effectively address the needs of the
- [Beyond Boundaries: Extending Services to the Urban Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beyond-boundaries-extending-services-to-the-urban-poor/) - In Asia about one billion people live in poverty and 250 million poor living in cities suffer from inadequate services such as water provision and sanitation. As public intervention has failed to improve their living standards, what are the alternatives to public sector initiatives to combat poverty? What should the role of the private sector
- [Households and Income: Ageing and Gender Inequalities in Urban Brazil and Colombia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/households-and-income-ageing-and-gender-inequalities-in-urban-brazil-and-colombia/) - How are social policy and pension reforms affecting the welfare of the elderly in Brazil and Colombia? What impact are these reforms having on family structure? This paper from the Journal of Developing Societies finds that universal pension reform can mitigate the economic and domestic exclusion of poorer and rural elderly while an individual saving pension
- [Changing Perspectives and Roles in Urban Water and Sanitation Provision : Privatization and Beyond](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/changing-perspectives-and-roles-in-urban-water-and-sanitation-provision-privatization-and-beyond/) - How can problems of water and sanitation provision best be resolved? Despite the localised and site-specific nature of many water and sanitation problems, the need for reform in the water and sanitation sector has fostered a search for generic prescriptions. This study from the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) concludes that increasing private sector
- [Toilet Wars: Urban Sanitation Services and the Politics of Public-Private Partnerships in Ghana](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/toilet-wars-urban-sanitation-services-and-the-politics-of-public-private-partnerships-in-ghana/) - Do public-private partnerships actually realise the improvements in service provision that their proponents claim? This paper for the Institute of Development Studies examines the impact of the new forms of partnership between the public authorities and private/citizen-based organisations on urban environmental sanitation in the two largest cities of Ghana, Accra and Kumasi.There is a continuing
- [Urbanization Trends and Forces Shaping Slums](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/urbanization-trends-and-forces-shaping-slums/) - Why do cities take certain forms and the poor congregate in particular locations? How do macro or external forces act on the cities responsible for slum formation? Written for the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, this paper examines urbanisation trends and the forces that shape slums. It is argued the internal spatial organisation of cities
- [Innovative Contracts, Sound Relationships: Urban Water Sector Reform in Senegal](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/innovative-contracts-sound-relationships-urban-water-sector-reform-in-senegal/) - Water sector reforms in developing countries have increasingly involved the participation of private companies. However, has this led to a more efficient and equitable system? What is the best form of partnership between the state and private companies in the delivery of public services? This study from the World Bank analyses this issue in relation
- [Poor Urban Services, Poor Delivery – Can the Poor Help?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poor-urban-services-poor-delivery-can-the-poor-help/) - Small enterprises can be effective in delivering infrastructure services where larger government-run organisations find provision uneconomical or logistically difficult. This article from Small Enterprise Development argues that municipal governments benefit from opening up urban service provision to small providers that may be more responsive to the poor. It examines lessons and challenges from developing-country services
- [Decentralised Governance for Development: A Combined Practice Note on Decentralisation, Local Governance and Urban/Rural Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/decentralised-governance-for-development-a-combined-practice-note-on-decentralisation-local-governance-and-urbanrural-development/) - Can decentralised governance for development (DGD) improve people’s welfare and enhance human development? How can external actors, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), contribute to the effective planning, implementation and management of decentralised government? This Combined Practice Note from UNDP draws on extensive experience from the last decade to identify best practices in
- [The Politics of Urban Water Reform in Ghana](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-politics-of-urban-water-reform-in-ghana/) - How does the interaction between domestic political systems and the aid system affect democratic governance? This article from the Review of African Political Economy examines the Ghanaian government’s policy of private sector participation (PSP) in urban water reform. It illuminates the pervasive role of donors in policymaking, the embeddedness of the aid system and how donors affect
- [Central-Local Relations, Inter-Organisational Coordination and Policy Implementation in Urban Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/central-local-relations-inter-organisational-coordination-and-policy-implementation-in-urban-bangladesh/) - What happens to policy implementation when the process suffers from problems of coordination? This article from the Asia Pacific Journal of Public Administration focuses on how central-local relations in Bangladesh create inter-organisational coordination problems that affect the implementation of policies in urban governance. In the Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC), the central-local relationship is determined by
- [Beyond the State Police in Urban Uganda and Sierra Leone.](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beyond-the-state-police-in-urban-uganda-and-sierra-leone/) - What implications do the diversification of policing agencies have for state sovereignty? This Africkaspectrum article explores who is authorising and delivering policing beyond the state police in urban Sierra Leone and Uganda. It finds that, on the basis of the state’s ability to maintain a monopoly of the use of legitimate violence in providing law and
- [Cities, Terrorism and Urban Wars of the 21st Century](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/cities-terrorism-and-urban-wars-of-the-21st-century/) - What impact do acts of terror have on cities in the global South? This paper examines the largely negative implications of terrorist activities for development and the potential of cities for propelling reconstruction and peacebuilding. While specific challenges faced by cities in the global South cannot be under-estimated, urban terrorism is breaking down any sense
- [Inclusion or Exclusion? Emerging Effects of Middle-Class Citizen Participation on Delhi's Urban Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/inclusion-or-exclusion-emerging-effects-of-middle-class-citizen-participation-on-delhis-urban-poor/) - What are the implications for Delhi’s urban poor of increased middle-class participation in formal politics? The Bhagidari programme sought to institutionalise citizen participation in governance by involving Residents Welfare Associations (RWAs) in local level decision-making. It was restricted to middle-class areas. This Institute of Development Studies (IDS) paper explores Bhagidari’s impacts on channels of political
- [Climate Change and Urbanisation: Effects and Implications for Urban Governance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-change-and-urbanisation-effects-and-implications-for-urban-governance/) - How can municipal governments in low- and middle-income nations prepare for and adapt to the increasing risks posed by climate change? This paper, published by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, indicates that most adaptation to the likely climate change-related dangers over the next few decades fits well within a local development
- [Governance failure: rethinking the institutional dimensions of urban water supply to poor households](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/governance-failure-rethinking-the-institutional-dimensions-of-urban-water-supply-to-poor-households/) - This paper examines factors that explain the persistent failure of both public and private water supply system operators to achieve high rates of individual network connections to poor households in urban areas.Much of the recent literature has focused on the “ownership” versus “institutions” debate, and the relative merits of public versus private management of water
- [Reforming Urban Water Utilities in Western and Central Africa: Experiences with Public-Private Partnerships: Impact and Lessons Learned](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/reforming-urban-water-utilities-in-western-and-central-africa-experiences-with-public-private-partnerships-impact-and-lessons-learned/) - What has been the impact of public-private partnerships (PPPs) on urban water quality and access in Central and Western Africa? This report from the World Bank examines fifteen countries throughout the region, analysing different models and drawing out lessons learned. It concludes that public-private partnerships have had a positive impact on access, reliability, and cost
- [Who Governs Kabul? Explaining Urban Politics in a Post-War Capital City](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/who-governs-kabul-explaining-urban-politics-in-a-post-war-capital-city/) - Wars, particularly civil wars, are increasingly focused on cities. How can they best be tackled? This study, published by the Crisis States Research Centre, reviews the history of city politics in Kabul and the processes of governance that occur at different levels. Multi-layered conflicts in capital cities can concentrate political attention and overload urban development
- [Urban Governance for Adaptation: Assessing Climate Change Resilience in Ten Asian Cities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/urban-governance-for-adaptation-assessing-climate-change-resilience-in-ten-asian-cities/) - How can climate-related impacts be managed in urban settings? What are the links between urban governance, climate adaptation, poverty reduction and sustainable development? This paper develops an analytical framework by combining governance literature with climate resilience assessments conducted in ten Asian cities. The climate-resilient urban governance assessment framework involves: (1) decentralisation and autonomy, (2) accountability
- [Gangs, Urban Violence, and Security Interventions in Central America](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gangs-urban-violence-and-security-interventions-in-central-america/) - What is the nature of Central American gang violence and have attempts to reduce it been successful? Urban violence is a major preoccupation of policymakers, planners and development practitioners, but it is a complex phenomenon. This article argues that repressive first-generation approaches have tended to radicalise gangs and push them towards organised crime. Meanwhile, preventive
- [Capital, Capacities and Collaboration: the Multiple Roles of Community Savings in Addressing Urban Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/capital-capacities-and-collaboration-the-multiple-roles-of-community-savings-in-addressing-urban-poverty/) - Recent experiences demonstrate the significance of collective savings among low-income urban citizens in developing countries. Such practices have helped to raise incomes, consolidate and protect individual and collective assets, and reduce political exclusion. Some savings groups have evolved into substantive institutions. Not only can community savings initiatives trigger multiple reinforcing effects that help to move
- [Meeting the Urban Challenge: Adapting Humanitarian Efforts to an Urban World](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/meeting-the-urban-challenge-adapting-humanitarian-efforts-to-an-urban-world/) - This document provides an overview of current thinking and emerging good practice related to humani¬tarian action in an urban environment. It is based on the discussions held at the 27th Meeting of the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP) and on a review of recent literature on humanitarian responses to
- [Pipe Dreams? The Governance of Urban Water Supply in Informal Settlements, New Delhi](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/pipe-dreams-the-governance-of-urban-water-supply-in-informal-settlements-new-delhi/) - Based on fieldwork on urban water supply in New Delhi, this paper shows that while informal providers fill a gap left by the public utility, residents can remain captive consumers with limited ability to influence service quality or price.In this case, residents were successfully able to organise themselves to drive improvements to services through a
- [Approaches to Conducting Political Economy Analysis in the Urban Water Sector](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/approaches-to-conducting-political-economy-analysis-in-the-urban-water-sector/) - This report provides guidance on conducting political economy analysis in the urban water sector, highlighting lessons from case studies. The cases span successful reforms, such as in Chile and Senegal; reforms where the results are still incomplete or have not been replicated, such as Ghana and Panama; and those where reforms are pending, such as
- [Making the Urban Poor Safer: Lessons from Nairobi and Maharashtra](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-the-urban-poor-safer-lessons-from-nairobi-and-maharashtra/) - Mumbai and Nairobi have acutely unequal urban development, with respectively 40 per cent and 60 per cent of their urban population living in slums. The most impoverished neighbourhoods are characterised by severe lack of service provision and poor access to employment opportunities. Urban violence is deeply rooted in the multiple vulnerabilities experienced by slum-dwellers, such
- [Politics, informality and clientelism – exploring a pro-poor urban politics](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/politics-informality-and-clientelism-exploring-a-pro-poor-urban-politics/) - This paper explores what has been learnt about how to instigate, negotiate or otherwise secure pro-poor government in towns and cities of the global South. With competition for scarce resources, the processes of urban development, and specifically the acquisition of land and basic services, are intensely political. While the nature of urban poverty differs, there
- [Understanding ‘Urban Youth’ and the Challenges they face in Sub-Saharan Africa: Unemployment, Food Insecurity and Violent Crime](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/understanding-urban-youth-and-the-challenges-they-face-in-sub-saharan-africa-unemployment-food-insecurity-and-violent-crime/) - This paper reviews how the various definitions of ‘youth’ relate to three dominant discourses about poverty and vulnerability in urbanising Africa: food insecurity; unemployment/joblessness; and violence/insecurity. Some, but not all of these discourses highlight young people. The paper’s discussion of common youth definitions seeks to identify if and when these are responsive to the needs
- [Urban Poverty in Asia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/urban-poverty-in-asia/) - This paper looks at the income and non-income dimensions of poverty in the two main regions of Asia, including a brief account of who and what class of people are affected most by poverty and deprivation. It analyses the effect of recent urbanisation and gross domestic product (GDP) growth trends—which distinguish Asia from other regions—on
- [Services in the city: governance and political economy in urban service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/services-in-the-city-governance-and-political-economy-in-urban-service-delivery/) - How good is service delivery in urban areas? This discussion paper reviews literature on the political economy of four key urban services: solid waste management, water supply, transport, and urban health services. The four sector reviews demonstrate the importance of governance factors – partly rooted in physical, economic, social and political differences between rural and
- [Rebuilding Resilience: The Education Challenge](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rebuilding-resilience-the-education-challenge/) - What are the best strategies for supporting education programmes in fragile states? This newsletter from the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) reviews recent educational reform projects in fragile situations, concluding that rebuilding state resilience is the most effective means of improving education outcomes. It recommends that donors tailor their interventions to specific contexts
- [State-Society Relations and the Intangible Dimensions of State Resilience and Statebuilding: A Bottom Up Perspective](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/state-society-relations-and-the-intangible-dimensions-of-state-resilience-and-statebuilding-a-bottom-up-perspective/) - Crucial social and cultural elements underpin state institutions and ensure that they function. This is especially important to understand in 'fragile' settings. This paper argues that conventional perspectives need to be broadened beyond tangible dimensions of state resilience, institutions and statebuilding to include intangible dimensions. International actors need to gain an understanding of the relationships,
- [From Violence to Resilience: Restoring Confidence and Transforming Institutions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/from-violence-to-resilience-restoring-confidence-and-transforming-institutions/) - How can countries escape the vicious cycle of fragility and move towards a virtuous cycle of confidence building and institutional transformation? This chapter sets out a framework that involves: 1) restoring confidence; 2) early attention to the reform of institutions that provide citizen security, justice and jobs; 3) reform approaches that allow for flexibility and
- [A Decade of Struggling Reform Efforts in Jordan: The Resilience of the Rentier System](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-decade-of-struggling-reform-efforts-in-jordan-the-resilience-of-the-rentier-system/) - How have efforts towards political reform fared in Jordan in the past ten years? How can this performance be explained? Successive Jordanian governments have failed to dismantle the laws and institutions that thwart the development of an effective system of checks and balances. This paper charts efforts at reform, and finds that an entrenched elite
- [The Roots of Resilience: Exploring Popular Support for African Traditional Authorities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-roots-of-resilience-exploring-popular-support-for-african-traditional-authorities/) - This examination of 2008-9 Afrobarometer survey data finds intense support for traditional authority across 19 African countries and all socio-demographic groups: large majorities believe that the institution should still play a significant role in local governance. Africans place considerable value on chiefs' role in managing and resolving conflict, their leadership qualities and their accessibility. Traditional
- [Social Protection and Climate Resilience](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-protection-and-climate-resilience/) - This report presents the discussions and recommendations emerging from an international workshop on “Making Social Protection Work for Pro-poor Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation”, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on March 14–17, 2011 and organised by the World Bank, in collaboration with the Institute of Development Studies (IDS), the UK Department for International
- [A Conceptual Analysis of Livelihoods and Resilience: Addressing the ‘Insecurity of Agency’](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-conceptual-analysis-of-livelihoods-and-resilience-addressing-the-insecurity-of-agency/) - This paper suggests that humanitarian debates focus on reducing people’s vulnerability and enhancing their agency, rather than on building resilience. It finds that symptoms of resilience can too easily be misidentified, and that structural factors that prevent people from living with security about their futures can be missed. It notes the importance of the concept
- [Changing Climate, Changing Disasters: Pathways Towards Integration Strengthening Climate Resilience](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/changing-climate-changing-disasters-pathways-towards-integration-strengthening-climate-resilience/) - This report is an introduction to the Climate Smart Disaster Risk Management (CSDRM) approach, which attempts to help disaster risk management practitioners and policymakers consider what ‘a climate smart organisation, programme of policy looks like in the real world’. This report is aimed at experts in their fields who are looking to integrate their knowledge
- [When Disasters and Conflicts Collide: Improving Links Between Disaster Resilience and Conflict Prevention](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/when-disasters-and-conflicts-collide-improving-links-between-disaster-resilience-and-conflict-prevention/) - This report finds that the evidence base for the 'natural' disasters-conflict interface is fragmented and contested. This suggests that the complexity of conflict and disaster dynamics can only be understood when grounded in specific contexts. Examples are therefore provided of disaster risk reduction in Afghanistan, resilience building in the Sahel region, community based risk reduction
- [Investing in Resilience: Ensuring a Disaster-Resistant Future](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/investing-in-resilience-ensuring-a-disaster-resistant-future/) - How can we ensure that the actions we know are required to strengthen resilience are actually taken? This report addresses this question by setting out a vision of a resilient future in Asia and the Pacific and then working backwards to identify potential pathways to its achievement. It highlights the importance of coordinated action, and
- [No Accident: Resilience and the Inequality of Risk](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/no-accident-resilience-and-the-inequality-of-risk/) - This paper argues that a new approach is needed for risk and poverty reduction. Major external risks, such as climate change and food price volatility, are increasing faster than attempts to reduce them. Many risks are dumped on poor people, and women face an overwhelming burden. A new focus on building resilience offers real promise
- [The South Asia Women’s Resilience Index: Examining the role of women in preparing for and recovering from disasters](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-south-asia-womens-resilience-index-examining-the-role-of-women-in-preparing-for-and-recovering-from-disasters/) - This report discusses the findings of the South Asia Women’s Resilience Index (WRI).The WRI draws upon a range of indicators in four categories—Economic, Infrastructure, Institutional and Social—to assess the capacity of a country to adapt to and recover from quick onset events that fall outside the range of those that are normal or anticipated.Key findings:Most
- [Preventive Measures: Building Risk Assessment and Crisis Early Warning Systems](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/preventive-measures-building-risk-assessment-and-crisis-early-warning-systems/) - How can early warning systems be improved? This introductory chapter from 'Preventive Measures: Building Risk Assessment and Crisis Early Warning Systems' argues that the complexity of issues involved in early intervention and preventive diplomacy is such that no single organisation or sector is either capable of, or motivated for, effective action in isolation. Thus, collaboration
- [Behavior Change Communication to Reduce Risk and Vulnerability in Resource-Constrained Settings](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/behavior-change-communication-to-reduce-risk-and-vulnerability-in-resource-constrained-settings/) - What lessons have been learned in 20 years of responses to the AIDS pandemic? This handbook by Family Health International suggests that progress is made only when communities and nations wholeheartedly embrace the fight against AIDS. Furthermore, there is no 'one-size-fits-all' solution in designing and delivering the most effective prevention and care initiatives. HIV feeds
- [Civil Society and Peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/civil-society-and-peacebuilding/) - How can civil society most effectively work for peacebuilding? This paper presents the findings of a comparative research project which analysed the performance of civil society in regards to protection, monitoring, advocacy, socialisation, social cohesion, facilitation, and service delivery in situations of war and armed conflict. It concludes civil society can play an important supportive
- [Social Risk Management: The World Bank’s Approach to Social Protection in a Globalising World](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-risk-management-the-world-banks-approach-to-social-protection-in-a-globalising-world/) - The World Bank’s rethinking of traditional Social Protection approaches has inspired a new conceptual framework named Social Risk Management (SRM). The focus of SRM is to replace unproductive coping strategies with advance planning and mechanisms to help households anticipate and insure against shocks. This requires redesigning traditional public interventions and substantial future work at the
- [Vulnerability, Risk and Adaptation: A Conceptual Framework](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/vulnerability-risk-and-adaptation-a-conceptual-framework/) - In studying and addressing vulnerability and adaptation, different formulations of vulnerability lead to confusion. These need to be distinguished from each other, and clear statements are needed on how terms are being defined. The 'official' definition of vulnerability used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is very similar to long-established definitions of risk
- [Managing Fiduciary Risk When Providing Poverty Reduction Budget Support](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/managing-fiduciary-risk-when-providing-poverty-reduction-budget-support/) - Do the potential developmental benefits of providing Poverty Reduction Budget Support (PRBS) justify the risks involved? DFID is accountable to Parliament for the use of taxpayers’ funds. Making sure that aid resources are utilised for the intended purposes, properly accounted for and that they deliver value for money is therefore part of DFID’s main responsibilities.
- [Summary of Research Findings on the Nutritional Status and Risk Factors for Vulnerability of Older People in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/summary-of-research-findings-on-the-nutritional-status-and-risk-factors-for-vulnerability-of-older-people-in-africa/) - As the global population of older people (OP) is increasing, it is important to recognise and respond to their specific needs. This report, by HelpAge International, brings together key issues affecting the nutrition and health of OP, drawing on a range of surveys in Africa. There is an urgent need to develop and implement geriatric
- [Youth At Risk, Social Exclusion and Intergenerational Poverty Dynamics: A New Survey Instrument with Application to Brazil](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/youth-at-risk-social-exclusion-and-intergenerational-poverty-dynamics-a-new-survey-instrument-with-application-to-brazil/) - What risk factors face poor youth in Northeastern Brazil and how are these risks transferred from one generation to the next? This World Bank paper documents the results of a survey conducted in the very poorest urban neighbourhoods of Fortaleza. The new survey instrument used covers five areas: i) socio-economic background; ii) education; iii) health
- [Investing in Prevention: An International Strategy to Manage Risks of Instability and Improve Crisis Response](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/investing-in-prevention-an-international-strategy-to-manage-risks-of-instability-and-improve-crisis-response/) - How can the UK improve its strategic approach to countries at risk of instability? This paper from the Prime Minister's Strategy Unit outlines the challenges and risks of instability. It identifies practical steps the UK Government can take to improve its prevention and response strategies in partnership with other international actors. It argues that more
- [The Role of Local Organizations in Risk Management: Some Evidence from Rural Chad](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-local-organizations-in-risk-management-some-evidence-from-rural-chad/) - Why do rural households join local organisations? Can local organisations help rural households manage risks? This paper published by the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, Ghana analyses the role of local organisations in Southern Chad in helping poor people deal with risk. Local organisations play an important role in risk management, but the
- [Countries at Risk of Instability: Risk Factors of and Dynamics of Instability](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/countries-at-risk-of-instability-risk-factors-of-and-dynamics-of-instability/) - What makes a country at risk of instability? This paper from the Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit looks at factors driving political, economic and social instability. These include country capacity, risk factors, external stabilising factors and the feedback loop of instability into risk factors. Evidence of instability reveals the importance of elites, institutions and natural resources.
- [Post-Conflict Risks](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/post-conflict-risks/) - What are the most important factors in determining the durability of peace in post-conflict countries? This paper from the Centre for the Study of African Economies (CSAE) reports on the results of a statistical study of post-conflict risks and the impact of military, political, social, economic and temporal factors on peace. While post-conflict political design of
- [Risk Amplification: HIV in Migrant Communities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/risk-amplification-hiv-in-migrant-communities/) - What is the relationship between migration and HIV risk in South Africa? This paper from Development Southern Africa identifies urban informal settlements as key magnifiers of risk which increase the vulnerability of migrants to HIV. It emphasises the importance of understanding behavioural patterns of vulnerable groups and the multiple dimensions of risk. As high-risk environments,
- [Working with the Winds of Change: Towards Strategies for Responding to the Risks Associated with Climate Change and Other Hazards](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/working-with-the-winds-of-change-towards-strategies-for-responding-to-the-risks-associated-with-climate-change-and-other-hazards/) - Reducing disaster risks, particularly those likely to emerge as a consequence of climate change, is a long-term process. Contexts are evolving continuously – and not just in response to climate conditions. Capacities are also growing as technological change, globalisation, and processes of institutional evolution reshape the underlying systems on which local societies run. Furthermore, new
- [Gender Matters: Lessons for Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-matters-lessons-for-disaster-risk-reduction-in-south-asia/) - The larger project of which this publication is a part addresses capacity development in multi-hazard risk assessment by providing a platform for enabling cross-regional interaction and exchange of ideas, knowledge and experiences in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. This document draws attention to gender as an indicator of vulnerability, with particular emphasis on how and
- [Liberia: The Risks of Re-building a Shadow State](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/liberia-the-risks-of-re-building-a-shadow-state/) - What lessons can the international community draw from statebuilding efforts in Liberia? This chapter from the book 'Building States to Build Peace' reviews the international community's experience in Liberia during its post-conflict transitional period and finds that deeply intrusive forms of intervention often risk long-term sustainability for medium-term success. It argues that unless reforms and
- [Climate Change, Human Vulnerability and Social Risk Management](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-change-human-vulnerability-and-social-risk-management/) - How can interventions increase society's capacity to manage climate risks, reducing household vulnerability while maintaining or improving opportunities for development? This paper presents a social risk management and asset-based conceptual framework to help design such interventions. An integrated, multisectoral approach is needed to manage both direct and indirect climate risks. This requires greater collaboration among
- [Incentives and Constraints to Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction - a Local Perspective](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/incentives-and-constraints-to-climate-change-adaptation-and-disaster-risk-reduction-a-local-perspective/) - How do the capacities of and constraints experienced by local actors affect their engagement in climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction (CCA/DRR)? How can development actors improve their efforts to achieve local 'buy-in' to CCA/DRR? This policy brief finds that CCA/DRR implementation requires the creation of an enabling environment for changes in local institutions,
- [Climate Change Adaptation, Disaster Risk Reduction and Social Protection: Complementary Roles in Agriculture and Rural Growth?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-change-adaptation-disaster-risk-reduction-and-social-protection-complementary-roles-in-agriculture-and-rural-growth/) - This study examines the opportunities for linking social protection, climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR) in the context of agriculture and rural growth, exploring whether linking these three approaches together will help enhance resilience to shocks and stresses in agriculture-dependent rural communities. The study does this by: (i) reviewing conceptual and policy-related
- [Index Insurance and Climate Risk: Prospects for Development and Disaster Management](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/index-insurance-and-climate-risk-prospects-for-development-and-disaster-management/) - Variable and unpredictable climate can limit development and amplify poverty, particularly in the developing world. The potential of index insurance to help manage climate variability is being tested in a growing number of developing country settings. This report discusses this new type of insurance, presents case studies and outlines key lessons and recommendations. It finds
- [Closing the Gaps: Disaster Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/closing-the-gaps-disaster-risk-reduction-and-adaptation-to-climate-change-in-developing-countries/) - Climate change has highlighted the urgent need for the reform of governance approaches and institutions. Disaster risk reduction of climate change impacts requires unparalleled international cooperation and new forms of local, national, regional and international governance. This chapter suggests how institutional architecture should be organised to fill 'governance gaps' in order to serve local needs
- [Addressing the Challenge: Recommendations and Quality Criteria for Linking Disaster Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/addressing-the-challenge-recommendations-and-quality-criteria-for-linking-disaster-risk-reduction-and-adaptation-to-climate-change/) - How can the international community accelerate progress on climate change adaptation while ensuring sustainable development? This report argues that the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events requires the proactive implementation of new tools to accelerate climate change adaptation. Disaster risk reduction methods should be linked with adaptation strategies to provide affected regions with the
- [Assessing Progress on Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in Development Processes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/assessing-progress-on-integrating-disaster-risk-reduction-and-climate-change-adaptation-in-development-processes/) - What progress has been made in the convergence of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA)? What are the obstacles to further integration? This assessment identifies pockets and trajectories of integration that promise improved development outcomes. However, it also finds continued separation of DRR, CCA and development in some geographic areas and significant
- [Responding to a Changing Climate: Exploring how Disaster Risk Reduction, Social Protection and Livelihoods Approaches Promote Features of Adaptive Capacity](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/responding-to-a-changing-climate-exploring-how-disaster-risk-reduction-social-protection-and-livelihoods-approaches-promote-features-of-adaptive-capacity/) - How can other humanitarian and development approaches help enhance communities’ capacity to adapt to a changing climate? This paper examines which aspects of disaster risk reduction, social protection and livelihoods approaches can contribute to adaptive capacity and how these approaches can better respond to climate change and facilitate adaptation. While recognising that each approach has
- [Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in the Pacific: The Challenge of Integration](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disaster-risk-reduction-and-climate-change-adaptation-in-the-pacific-the-challenge-of-integration/) - What are the challenges in integrating community-based disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA)? This research investigates the current situation and thinking on integrating DRR and CCA in community based projects in the Pacific. A key finding is the importance of agency and the significance of building and maintaining good relationships between DRR
- [Disaster Risk Reduction or Climate Change Adaptation: Are we Reinventing the Wheel?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disaster-risk-reduction-or-climate-change-adaptation-are-we-reinventing-the-wheel/) - What are the similarities and differences between Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)? What can be learned from experiences of both approaches in Papua New Guinea (PNG)? This paper analyses the two approaches and draws on experience from PNG in recommending ways to integrate both in development policy. The research demonstrates the
- [Using Technology to Deliver Social Protection: Exploring Opportunities and Risks](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/using-technology-to-deliver-social-protection-exploring-opportunities-and-risks/) - What are the opportunities and risks of using information and communications technology (ICT) to deliver social protection? This article considers experiences from southern Africa, focusing on pilot projects in Malawi. It finds that using ICT to deliver social protection increases project efficiency and cost-effectiveness (particularly at large scale), increases flexibility and broader access to banking
- [Participation of the Most Vulnerable in Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation Decision-making and Action](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/participation-of-the-most-vulnerable-in-disaster-risk-reduction-and-climate-change-adaptation-decision-making-and-action/) - This chapter explores the extent to which the most vulnerable victims of natural hazards are, or can be, included in DRR and CCA decision-making and action. Drawing on case studies from the Maldives, Indonesia and India, it highlights the importance of including the most vulnerable, such as the poor in general and youth and women
- [Golden Surrender: The Risks, Challenges, and Implications of Reintegration in Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/golden-surrender-the-risks-challenges-and-implications-of-reintegration-in-afghanistan/) - What are the challenges and risks involved in the reintegration of insurgents in Afghanistan? This paper argues that reintegration is more complex and difficult to accomplish than is commonly appreciated. Obstacles include lack of trust, insurgent cohesion and revenge attacks. A well-executed reintegration scheme could have social and economic benefits and reduce insurgency. But if
- [Disaster Risk Management for Insecure Contexts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disaster-risk-management-for-insecure-contexts/) - In insecure contexts there is often a self-reinforcing spiral: conflict creates more vulnerability to disaster and more vulnerability to disaster creates further conflict. This is compounded by climate change, environmental degradation, market fragility, economic marginalisation, migration and unplanned urbanisation. Aid is currently too disjointed to address this spiral effectively. Each agency has disparate policies, teams
- [Managing Risks in Fragile and Transitional Contexts: The Price of Success?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/managing-risks-in-fragile-and-transitional-contexts-the-price-of-success/) - This report investigates the question ‘Should aid providers be more willing to take risks when working in fragile states?’ The study considers the evidence for this idea and related propositions. Based on an analysis of donor policy, it makes recommendations for change in approaches to risk that might lead to greater aid effectiveness in these
- [Transforming Disaster Risk Management: A Political Economy Approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transforming-disaster-risk-management-a-political-economy-approach/) - This paper examines recent work by disaster researchers on the complex role of institutional arrangements in shaping policy decisions. It identifies incentive structures, information gaps and intra-governmental relations as key factors affecting the decisions of national and local authorities. It recommends more interdisciplinary research on political processes and policy change to develop a clearer theoretical
- [Reducing Risks of Future Disasters: Priorities for Decision Makers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/reducing-risks-of-future-disasters-priorities-for-decision-makers/) - This report reviews the latest science and evidence, and its role in disaster risk reduction (DRR). The report concludes that, despite increasing challenges ahead, it is possible to stabilise disaster impacts and save both lives and livelihoods given political leadership and concerted action by the wide range of stakeholders.Drivers of future disaster riskThe project considers
- [Effectiveness Review: Community-Based Disaster Risk Management and Livelihoods Programme, Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/effectiveness-review-community-based-disaster-risk-management-and-livelihoods-programme-pakistan/) - Under Oxfam Great Britain’s (OGB) Global Performance Framework (GPF), sufficiently mature projects/programmes are being randomly selected each year and their effectiveness rigorously assessed. Pakistan’s Community-based Disaster Risk Management and Livelihoods Programme was randomly selected for an Effectiveness Review under the adaptation and risk reduction (ARR) thematic area. The review focused on the work carried out
- [From Shared Risk to Shared Value – The Business Case for Disaster Risk Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/from-shared-risk-to-shared-value-the-business-case-for-disaster-risk-reduction/) - This 2013 edition of the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction examines how public regulation and private investment shapes disaster risk. It finds that direct disaster losses are at least 50 percent higher than internationally reported figures. Total direct losses in 40 low- and middle-income countries amount to US$305 billion over the last 30
- [Managing Famine Risk: Linking Early Warning to Early Action](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/managing-famine-risk-linking-early-warning-to-early-action/) - This document is the final report of a Chatham House research project on the barriers that hinder appropriate response to early warning of slow-onset food crises. It finds that famine risk is well understood but badly managed. Famine early warning does not lead to early action, often because of governments' perceptions of political risk: changing
- [What is the evidence of the impact of initiatives to reduce risk and incidence of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict zones and other humanitarian crises in lower and middle-income countries? A systematic review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-is-the-evidence-of-the-impact-of-initiatives-to-reduce-risk-and-incidence-of-sexual-violence-in-conflict-and-post-conflict-zones-and-other-humanitarian-crises-in-lower-and-middle-income-countries/) - This review finds that implementation of conflict and crisis related-sexual violence initiatives on the ground remains very limited. It also highlights an acute lack of evaluation of such interventions, leading to insufficient evidence for the effectiveness of any interventions to address or prevent sexual violence in conflict or crisis. However, it notes that strategies appear
- [Disaster Risk Reduction and Livelihoods](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disaster-risk-reduction-and-livelihoods/) - This report finds that Disaster Risk Reduction programmes and research need to begin to address the gaps in DRR knowledge and programming and the increased vulnerability of certain populations and locations. Such gaps include: Limited national capacity Limited funding for DRR compared to relief efforts Lack of standardised definitions, tools, methodologies, or assessments Limited incorporation
- [World Development Report 2014: Risk and Opportunity—Managing Risk for Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/world-development-report-2014-risk-and-opportunity-managing-risk-for-development/) - The World Development Report (WDR) 2014 focuses on the process of risk management, addressing these questions: why is risk management important for development, how should it be conducted, what obstacles prevent people and societies from conducting it effectively, and how can these obstacles be overcome? It suggests five principles of public action for better risk
- [Women’s Education Reduces Risk of Gender-Based Violence: Evidence from 33 countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/womens-education-reduces-risk-of-gender-based-violence-evidence-from-33-countries/) - This paper studies domestic violence against women (VAW) in 33 poor countries, using household survey data from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) and the Work, Attitudes and Spending (WAS) survey. The latter of these is a Nigerian national survey of urban and rural households. This paper used information from WAS surveys from 2003 and
- [Localising Aid: Is it worth the risk?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/localising-aid-is-it-worth-the-risk/) - This report sets out an approach for assessing the risks associated with choices of aid instruments. These risks are specific to the instrument and the recipient country. The methodology involves subjective assessments of as many as 29 risks, their outcomes, probabilities (on a 6-point scale) and risk factors. It also identifies potential mitigation strategies and
- [What Does it Take to Mainstream Disaster Risk Management in Key Sectors?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-does-it-take-to-mainstream-disaster-risk-management-in-key-sectors/) - Actions towards development must be compatible with a changing climate. This requires each country to have a plan to avoid the losses and damages associated with extreme weather and to make disaster resilience central to economic and social policies. This guide draws on the experience of CDKN’s programmes on climate-related disaster risk management (DRM) within
- [Making Disaster Risk Management Inclusive](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-disaster-risk-management-inclusive/) - This briefing presents lessons from the inclusive community Resilience for sustainable Disaster Risk Management project (incRisD) in South Asia and partner programmes. It highlights the need to: 1) understand the root causes of exclusion in disaster contexts, define excluded groups, and involve them meaningfully in reducing their disaster risks; 2) create a conducive policy environment
- [Effective law and regulation for disaster risk reduction: A multi-country report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/effective-law-and-regulation-for-disaster-risk-reduction-a-multi-country-report/) - This report is intended to help prepare and implement effective legal frameworks for disaster risk management (DRM) that are adapted to a country’s needs, drawing on examples and experience from other countries. It examines aspects of different countries’ legislation according to how they address relevant themes in the HFA, as well as issues identified by
- [What Happens to the State in Conflict?: Political Analysis as a Tool for Planning Humanitarian Assistance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-happens-to-the-state-in-conflict-political-analysis-as-a-tool-for-planning-humanitarian-assistance/) - Peacemaking and humanitarian assistance in complex political emergencies (CPEs) based on a lack of understanding of their political dimensions often result in unintended and even counter-productive outcomes. What is required is analysis grounded in humanitarian principles but based on political realities. This article uses information derived from the COPE programme to illustrate how policy and
- [Fiscal Consequences of Armed Conflict and Terrorism in Low and Middle Income Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fiscal-consequences-of-armed-conflict-and-terrorism-in-low-and-middle-income-countries/) - One would intuitively assume that armed conflict has a negative effect on economic growth, especially in poorer countries. But what does the empirical evidence say? And how exactly does conflict affect fiscal accounts?An International Monetary Fund (IMF) working paper addresses these questions with reference to the empirical evidence, which is abundant. Between 1989 and 2000
- [Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Key Issues in Governance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/post-conflict-reconstruction-key-issues-in-governance/) - This paper presents material on post-conflict reconstruction, with a focus on key legacies of conflict, government priorities in post-conflict situations and requirements in effective external aid support. Content is drawn from experience in Sierra Leone with provision of an in-depth case study, although, the paper is described by the author as a work in progress.For
- [The Unequal Burden of War: The Effect of Armed Conflict on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-unequal-burden-of-war-the-effect-of-armed-conflict-on-the-gender-gap-in-life-expectancy/) - Does conflict reduce the gap in life expectancy between men and women? Most direct victims of armed conflict tend to be men, because most combatants are men. However, there are a range of indirect effects of conflict which may affect women more than men. This paper, prepared for the journal International Organization, analyses the impact
- [The Legacies of Armed Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-legacies-of-armed-conflict/) - What are the economic legacies of armed conflict? How should policymakers approach these legacies in recovery strategies? This book chapter from the United Nations Development Programme argues that post-conflict countries are not blank slates on which new economic and social systems can be built. For a recovery strategy to work, it must acknowledge the legacies
- [The Impact of Armed Civil Conflict on Household Welfare and Policy Responses](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-armed-civil-conflict-on-household-welfare-and-policy-responses/) - How does armed conflict impact on households and how do they respond to and cope with it? This paper from the Institute of Development Studies examines the direct and indirect effects of conflicts and shows that the indirect effects are channelled through markets, political institutions and social networks. Until there is more research on the
- [Development Consequences of Armed Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/development-consequences-of-armed-conflict/) - The consequences of war extend far beyond direct deaths. In addition to battlefield casualties, armed conflict often leads to forced migration, refugee flows, capital flight, and the destruction of societies’ infrastructure. It also creates a development gap between those countries that have experienced armed conflict and those that have not.This paper conducts a statistical analysis
- [Conflict and the Formation of Political Beliefs in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conflict-and-the-formation-of-political-beliefs-in-africa/) - This study tests whether living through conflict in childhood changes political beliefs and engagement. It combines data on the location and intensity of conflicts since 1945 with nationally representative data on political attitudes and behaviours from 17 sub-Saharan African countries. Exposure from ages 0 to 14 has a very small standardized impact on later attitudes
- [Conflict Prevention: Theory in Pursuit of Policy and Practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/conflict-prevention-theory-in-pursuit-of-policy-and-practice/) - Why does there seem to be a gap between the promise and the actual pursuit of conflict prevention? How can decision makers devise effective conflict prevention policies? This chapter from the Sage Handbook of Conflict Prevention reviews the concepts, activities, and impacts of conflict prevention, focusing on the ‘primary prevention’ of prospective new conflicts. Policymakers
- [Violent Conflict and Gender Inequality: An Overview](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/violent-conflict-and-gender-inequality-an-overview/) - Violent conflict has lasting impacts on human capital, and these impacts are seldom gender neutral. Death and destruction alter the structure and dynamics of households, including their demographic profiles and traditional gender roles. Attention to the gender impacts of conflict has tended to focus on sexual and gender-based violence. The authors suggest that a wider
- [“You say rape, I say hospitals. But whose voice is louder?” Health, aid and decision-making in the Democratic Republic of Congo](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/you-say-rape-i-say-hospitals-but-whose-voice-is-louder-health-aid-and-decision-making-in-the-democratic-republic-of-congo/) - In the last decade, scholars and humanitarians have rightly drawn attention to the high rates of gender-based violence in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), which are associated with the high levels of conflict in the country since 1996. However, this focus detracts from the general health problems that stem from the deterioration of
- [Painful Tradeoffs: Intimate-partner Violence and Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights in Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/painful-tradeoffs-intimate-partner-violence-and-sexual-and-reproductive-health-rights-in-kenya/) - How does intimate-partner violence affect Kenyan women's rights? How can the government, NGOs, and the legal and healthcare systems support abused women? This paper from the Institute of Development Studies explores links between intimate-partner violence and sexual and reproductive health (SRH) rights in Nairobi. Significant gaps exist between formal legal rights and the realities experienced
- [Social Protection and Health: Experiences in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-protection-and-health-experiences-in-uganda/) - How can the policy of abolishing user fees contribute to social protection? To date, discussion within the health sector has focused on the drawbacks of fee exemption schemes and community-based health options. This article, from Development Policy Review, analyses the impact of the decision by the Government of Uganda to abolish user fees for health
- [Using Social Transfers to Scale Up Equitable Access to Education and Health Services](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/using-social-transfers-to-scale-up-equitable-access-to-education-and-health-services/) - How can social transfers support the scaling up of health and education services and outcomes for the extreme poor? Are social transfer schemes cost effective? This paper, by the United Kingdom Government Department for International Development (DFID), reviews research, programme documents and grey literature to consider the impact of social transfers, particularly cash transfers and
- [An Awkward Threesome - Donors, Governments and non-state Providers of Health in Low Income Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/an-awkward-threesome-donors-governments-and-non-state-providers-of-health-in-low-income-countries/) - How effectively have governments and NSPs (non-state providers) of healthcare co-operated in developing countries? What government strategies and policy approaches might improve non-state provision of healthcare? This paper from Public Administration and Development investigates the relationships between governments and NSPs in Bangladesh, Malawi, Nigeria, Pakistan, South Africa and India. It argues that, while successful small-scale
- [Tackling Social Exclusion in Health and Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/tackling-social-exclusion-in-health-and-education/) - In many Asian countries, poverty reduction is undermined by inequality and insecurity. Achieving the Millennium Development Goals in these countries requires effort from governments and development agencies to help excluded groups access health and education services. This paper from GHK International and the Institute of Development Studies uses examples from across Asia to identify ways
- [Health Service Delivery in Early Recovery Fragile States: Lessons from Afghanistan, Cambodia, Mozambique, and Timor Leste](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/health-service-delivery-in-early-recovery-fragile-states-lessons-from-afghanistan-cambodia-mozambique-and-timor-leste/) - What are the impacts of foreign assistance on state stewardship of the health sector in early recovery fragile states? How can foreign aid encourage better state performance? This case study from USAID finds that donors have undermined state capacity to regulate service delivery by creating a two-track system. Promising approaches to support state stewardship include:
- [Improving Health Outcomes Through Community Empowerment: A Review of the Literature](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/improving-health-outcomes-through-community-empowerment-a-review-of-the-literature/) - How can empowerment lead to an improvement in the health status of individuals, groups and communities? This review examines the impact of nine 'domains' of empowerment that have led to improvements in health outcomes: participation; community-based organisations; local leadership; resource mobilisation; asking 'why?'; assessment of problems; links with other people and organisations; the role of
- [What is the Evidence on the Effectiveness of Empowerment to Improve Health?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-is-the-evidence-on-the-effectiveness-of-empowerment-to-improve-health/) - Evidence based on multi-level research designs shows that empowering initiatives can lead to health outcomes and that empowerment is a viable public health strategy. However, the effectiveness of empowerment initiatives may depend as much on the agency and leadership of the people involved, as on the context in which they take place. The most effective
- [A Literature Review of District Health Systems in East and Southern Africa: Facilitators and Barriers to Participation in Health](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-literature-review-of-district-health-systems-in-east-and-southern-africa-facilitators-and-barriers-to-participation-in-health/) - What are the facilitators and barriers to community participation in district health systems (DHSs) in sub-Saharan Africa? This literature review by the Regional Network for Equity in Health in East and Southern Africa (EQUINET) explores evidence on community voice, roles and participation at district level. The analysis is based on case studies in six countries:
- [Extending the Risk Pool for Health in Developing Countries: The Challenges of Moving to General Tax Funding](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/extending-the-risk-pool-for-health-in-developing-countries-the-challenges-of-moving-to-general-tax-funding/) - What are the challenges posed by general tax funding for health in developing countries? This paper from the International Social Security Review explores the policy options for extending risk-pooling. General taxation is potentially the most efficient and equitable financing mechanism for risk-pooling, depending on the progressivity of the tax collection instruments and subsequent public spending.Increasing
- [The Bangladesh Health SWAp: Experience of a New Aid Instrument in Practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-bangladesh-health-swap-experience-of-a-new-aid-instrument-in-practice/) - Are Sector-wide Approaches (SWAps) fulfilling their promise of encouraging government ownership of aid? This study published in the Development Policy Review examines this question in the context of the Bangladesh health sector programme, arguably the world’s oldest and largest SWAp. On the whole, the Bangladesh health SWAp has positively affected government processes and reduced transaction
- [Following the Money: Toward Better Tracking of Global Health Resources](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/following-the-money-toward-better-tracking-of-global-health-resources/) - How can we tell how much funding is devoted to global health programmes? How can planning and policymaking in the health sector be improved? This paper from the Center for Global Development’s Global Health Resource Tracking Working Group argues that more timely, complete, and detailed data are required in order to mobilise the necessary resources
- [Delivering Health Services in Fragile States and Difficult Environments: 13 Key Principles](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/delivering-health-services-in-fragile-states-and-difficult-environments-13-key-principles/) - What is needed to extend appropriate, effective healthcare to the under-served in fragile states and difficult environments? This paper from Health Unlimited draws on case studies from Burma/Myanmar, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Peru and Somaliland. Flexibility, understanding of a given context, the establishment of trust and long-term commitment are key to improving health outcomes. Targeting support
- [Promoting Health Equity in Conflict-affected Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/promoting-health-equity-in-conflict-affected-fragile-states/) - What are the main factors that threaten health equity and health care equity in conflict-affected fragile states? What strategies can reduce the impact of these factors? This paper prepared for the World Health Organisation examines the impact of conflict and state fragility on health equity. It identifies the key drivers of health inequity in conflict-affected
- [Health Microinsurance Schemes: Monitoring and Evaluation Guide, Volume 1: Methodology](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/health-microinsurance-schemes-monitoring-and-evaluation-guide-volume-1-methodology/) - What are the required capacities and key indicators of a viable health microinsurance scheme (HMIS)? This guide provides a tool to help in overcoming the lack of evaluation data on health microinsurance schemes. In countries with low levels of health insurance coverage, many health microinsurance schemes designed to reach the poor are emerging. There is
- [Engaging Men and Boys in Changing Gender-based Inequity in Health: Evidence from Programme Interventions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/engaging-men-and-boys-in-changing-gender-based-inequity-in-health-evidence-from-programme-interventions/) - How do social constructions of masculinity affect health equity? What kinds of interventions can produce behavioural change in men and boys? This review assesses the effectiveness of programmes seeking to engage men and boys in achieving gender equality and equity in health. Gender norms influence how men interact with their partners, family and children on
- [Health System Reconstruction: Can it Contribute to State-building?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/health-system-reconstruction-can-it-contribute-to-state-building/) - Can rebuilding health systems in fragile states strengthen the social contract and contribute to wider state-building? This study commissioned by the Health and Fragile States Network, which included fieldwork in Nigeria and Sierra Leone, finds that health sector strengthening can contribute to state-building in the health sector, but that its impact on wider state-building remains
- [Social Exclusion and Health Inequalities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-exclusion-and-health-inequalities/) - What are the limits of present empirical evidence over the links between health inequality and social exclusion? How does social exclusion contribute to the theories of social inequality in health? This Social Exclusion Knowledge Network paper examines the theoretical contribution that social exclusion can make to theories of social inequality in health. It is argued
- [Decentralisation and Gender: Coordination and Cooperation on Maternal Health Issues in Selected District Councils in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/decentralisation-and-gender-coordination-and-cooperation-on-maternal-health-issues-in-selected-district-councils-in-tanzania/) - How do Local Government Administrations (LGAs) in Tanzania coordinate and cooperate to reach gender-related goals? This study, published by the Chr. Michelsen Institute, identifies good practices in examining how five district councils cooperate with local communities, civil society organisations and the private sector to improve maternal health, and how well different departments within district councils coordinate
- [The Right to Health](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-right-to-health/) - What is the right to health, and what are countries' obligations in realising it? This paper outlines the right to health in international human rights law, implications for states, risks facing specific groups, and accountability and monitoring mechanisms. All states must: 1) respect the right to health, refraining from interfering directly or indirectly with it;
- [Health Sector Governance and Implications for the Private Sector](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/health-sector-governance-and-implications-for-the-private-sector/) - Although the private sector plays an increasingly important role in the health systems of developing countries, policymakers have paid insufficient attention to it and often lack experience of engaging with private sector actors through flexible and consensual approaches. The authors propose a governance framework for conceptualising the role of government in contexts where the private
- [Courting Social Justice in Health and Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/courting-social-justice-in-health-and-education/) - This research brief summarises findings from a widely-cited book: Gauri, V., and Brinks, D. M. (Eds.). (2008). Courting Social Justice: Judicial Enforcement of Social and Economic Rights in the Developing World Cambridge University Press. The book documents the impact of courts on policymaking across the developing world. Five country cases – Brazil, India, Indonesia, Nigeria
- [Making Reproductive Rights and Sexual and Reproductive Health A Reality for All](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-reproductive-rights-and-sexual-and-reproductive-health-a-reality-for-all/) - The reproductive rights and sexual and reproductive health (SRH) framework has been developed to provide overall guidance for implementing the Reproductive Health and Rights elements of the UNFPA Strategic plan 2008-2011. The framework builds on the goals established by previous international conferences and presents the conceptual and operational basis for UNFPA to achieve these goals.
- [A Rethink on the Use of Aid Mechanisms in Health Sector Early Recovery](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-rethink-on-the-use-of-aid-mechanisms-in-health-sector-early-recovery/) - What role should aid mechanisms play in the early recovery of weakened health sectors? This paper, published by KIT Development Policy and Practice, argues that flexible, experimental solutions are best suited to achieving the multiple objectives and delivery strategies of a developing health system. Aid effectiveness in this area has lagged because of an over-emphasis
- [Blind Optimism: Challenging the Myths About Private Health Care in Poor Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/blind-optimism-challenging-the-myths-about-private-health-care-in-poor-countries/) - The realisation of the right to health in poor countries depends upon a massive increase in health services to achieve universal and equitable access. A growing number of international donors are promoting an expansion of private-sector health-care delivery to fulfil this goal. This briefing paper from Oxfam contends that while the private sector can play
- [Making Reform Work: Institutions, Dispositions and the Improving Health of Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-reform-work-institutions-dispositions-and-the-improving-health-of-bangladesh/) - What is the role of social attitudes in supporting institutional reform? This article from World Development explores the institutional and social underpinnings of service provision by comparing decentralised health provision in the Bangladesh upazilas (sub-districts) of Rajnagar and Saturia. Regional variation in health outcomes is explained by the presence or absence of a dense web
- [Attacking Inequality in the Health Sector: A Menu of Pro-Poor Policies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/attacking-inequality-in-the-health-sector-a-menu-of-pro-poor-policies/) - Several successful programmes addressing the problem of health care inequality have been documented in recent years. This chapter draws on 14 such case studies to suggest general lessons learned. It presents a menu of pro-poor policies, and identifies recurring themes and emerging 'rules of thumb'. Success in reducing inequality can be achieved through programmes that
- [Community Health Insurance in Sub-Saharan Africa: What Operational Difficulties Hamper Its Development?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/community-health-insurance-in-sub-saharan-africa-what-operational-difficulties-hamper-its-development/) - Can community health insurance (CHI) increase access to care and offer financial protection for poor people excluded from formal insurance? What problems are there in implementing CHI? This literature review reveals major difficulties faced by CHI in sub-Saharan Africa: lack of a clear legislative and regulatory framework; low enrolment rates; insufficient risk management; weak managerial
- [Measuring the Impact of Bolsa Familia Program Based on Data from Health and Nutrition Days (Brazil)](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/measuring-the-impact-of-bolsa-familia-program-based-on-data-from-health-and-nutrition-days-brazil/) - Does Brazil's Bolsa Familia conditional cash transfer programme reduce children's malnutrition and food insecurity? This study assesses the programme's impact on the nutritional status of zero to five year olds. Data on 22,375 children's height/age, weight/age and weight/height shows that the PBF does improve child nutrition. To ensure an increase in beneficiaries' health levels, families
- [Ethiopia: Improving Health Service Delivery](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ethiopia-improving-health-service-delivery/) - Has decentralisation enhanced health service delivery (HSD) to the poor in Ethiopia? What factors enabled or inhibited improvements in health services between 1996 and 2006? This study finds that the Health Sector Development Programme (HSDP), which used decentralisation strategies, was largely successful. Subnational institutional and management capacity was a key factor in successful implementation. However,
- [Women and Health: Today's Evidence Tomorrow's Agenda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/women-and-health-todays-evidence-tomorrows-agenda/) - What are women's health needs? What is their contribution to the overall health of societies? This report takes stock of the health of women around the world and draws attention to the consequences and costs of failing to address health issues at appropriate points in women's lives. Addressing women's health is a necessary and effective
- [The Role of the Health Sector in Wider State-Building](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-the-health-sector-in-wider-state-building/) - This paper surveys examples of interaction between the health sector and wider state-building in fragile states. It focuses on the sub-national level where citizens and service-providers interact. It concludes that health sector interventions can and should play an important part in the process of state-building, but that further research is needed to build up a
- [Decentralisation, governance and health-system performance: “where you stand depends on where you sit”](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/decentralisation-governance-and-health-system-performance-where-you-stand-depends-on-where-you-sit/) - It is often argued that when decentralisation is accompanied by adequate mechanisms of accountability service delivery will improve. From a governance perspective, it is generally argued that decentralisation of the health sector is the right thing to do as long as the underlying conditions of good governance exist and/or decentralisation will strengthen those conditions. From
- [Global Strategy for Women's and Children's Health](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/global-strategy-for-womens-and-childrens-health/) - This paper outlines the UN’s strategy for more fully improving the health of women and children around the world from 2010-2015. It sets out the key areas where urgent action is required to enhance financing, strengthen policy and improve service delivery. The Global Strategy focuses on women and children when they are most vulnerable. In
- [The Impact of Vouchers on the Use and Quality of Health Goods and Services in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-vouchers-on-the-use-and-quality-of-health-goods-and-services-in-developing-countries-a-systematic-review/) - Have health voucher programmes achieved their objectives? This study assesses and synthesises evidence on such programmes' targeting and their effects on service usage, quality and efficiency, and on people's health outcomes. It finds robust evidence that health voucher programmes can increase the use of health goods/services and modest evidence that they can effectively target specific
- [Education and Health: Where Do Gender Differences Really Matter?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-and-health-where-do-gender-differences-really-matter/) - This study notes that investments in health and education – human capital endowments – shape the ability of men and women to reach their full potential. It examines gender gaps in education and health, and progress in addressing them. It finds that great progress had been made in cases where removing a single barrier –
- [Governance in the Health Sector: A Strategy for Measuring Determinants and Performance](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/governance-in-the-health-sector-a-strategy-for-measuring-determinants-and-performance/) - The role of rules and institutions in influencing the behaviour of health systems is increasingly acknowledged. This paper reviews the concept of governance as it is used in the literature on private firms, public administration, international development and health. The paper argues that governance should be understood as the combination of political, social, economic and
- [Global and Regional Estimates of Violence Against Women: Prevalence and Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence and Non-partner Sexual Violence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/global-and-regional-estimates-of-violence-against-women-prevalence-and-health-effects-of-intimate-partner-violence-and-non-partner-sexual-violence/) - This report presents the first global systematic review and synthesis of the body of scientific data on the prevalence of two forms of violence against women—violence by an intimate partner and sexual violence by someone other than a partner. It shows, for the first time, aggregated global and regional prevalence estimates of these two forms
- [Removing user fees in the health sector: a review of policy processes in six sub-Saharan African countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/removing-user-fees-in-the-health-sector-a-review-of-policy-processes-in-six-sub-saharan-african-countries/) - In recent years, governments of several low-income countries have taken decisive action by removing fully or partially user fees in the health sector. This study reviews recent reforms in six sub-Saharan African countries: Burkina Faso, Burundi, Ghana, Liberia, Senegal and Uganda. The review describes the processes and strategies through which user fee removal reforms have
- [A Congolese community-based health program for survivors of sexual violence. Conflict and Health](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-congolese-community-based-health-program-for-survivors-of-sexual-violence-conflict-and-health/) - Many survivors of gender based violence (GBV) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) report barriers to access health services including, distance, cost, lack of trained providers and fear of stigma. In 2004, Foundation RamaLevina (FORAL), a Congolese health and social non-governmental organization, started a mobile health program for vulnerable women and men to address
- [Promoting healthy behaviours and improving health outcomes in low and middle income countries: A review of the impact of conditional cash transfer programmes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/promoting-healthy-behaviours-and-improving-health-outcomes-in-low-and-middle-income-countries-a-review-of-the-impact-of-conditional-cash-transfer-programmes/) - This paper provides an overview of Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) programmes in low and middle income countries and present the evidence to date on their contribution to improvements in health and the encouragement of healthy behaviours. Several bibliographic databases and websites were used to identify relevant studies. To be included, a study had to provide
- [Why politics matter: Aid effectiveness and domestic accountability in the health sector](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/why-politics-matter-aid-effectiveness-and-domestic-accountability-in-the-health-sector/) - This paper looks at the impact of different modalities of aid on domestic accountability, by focusing on the health sector in Zambia and Uganda. It examines how aid and mechanisms around aid have interacted with domestic accountability relationships, as well as with information flows between donors and governments and outwards to citizens. In particular, it
- [Women’s health, men’s health, and gender and health: Implications of intersectionality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/womens-health-mens-health-and-gender-and-health-implications-of-intersectionality/) - Intersectionality challenges practices that privilege any specific axis of inequality, such as race, class, or gender and emphasizes the potential of varied and fluid configurations of social locations and interacting social processes in the production of inequities. Although intersectionality is now recognized in the context of women’s health, men’s health, and gender and health, its
- [Education and Decentralisation in Less Developed Countries: A Comment on General Trends, Issues and Problems, with Particular Reference to Papua New Guinea](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-and-decentralisation-in-less-developed-countries-a-comment-on-general-trends-issues-and-problems-with-particular-reference-to-papua-new-guinea/) - What potential difficulties can be faced in the decentralisation process? Can decentralisation work well in the education sector? The last two decades have seen numerous changes in the administrative systems of many less developed countries. Some have centralised their administrations, but most have decentralised. This article from the journal 'Comparative Education' considers the advantages and
- [Educational Decentralization: Issues and Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/educational-decentralization-issues-and-challenges/) - What has been the experience of decentralising education in Latin America? What have been the greatest barriers to reform? This paper for the World Bank examines these questions, comparing reform efforts in Argentina, Chile, Columbia, El Salvador, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, with Spain and the United States. The paper explains the fundamental issues, goals, processes,
- [Do Budgets Really Matter ? Evidence from Public Spending on Education and Health in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/do-budgets-really-matter-evidence-from-public-spending-on-education-and-health-in-uganda/) - Do budgets really matter? Budget allocations alone can be misleading in explaining outcomes and making policy decisions, when institutional relationships of accountability are weak. Also, data on actual public spending are seldom available by sub-sector or program. This diagnostic study by the World Bank uses a new survey tool, the public expenditure tracking survey (PETS),
- [Mainstreaming Gender Equality in Sector-Wide Approaches in Education: Synthesis Report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mainstreaming-gender-equality-in-sector-wide-approaches-in-education-synthesis-report/) - What have been the experiences of mainstreaming gender in education sector-wide approaches (SWAps)? How can SWAps become effective vehicles for promoting gender equality? This report for the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) assesses the experience of three countries (India, Ghana, and Uganda) and suggests ways of more effectively mainstreaming gender in education.The three countries
- [The Challenge Of Universal Primary Education - Strategies For Achieving The International Development Targets](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-challenge-of-universal-primary-education-strategies-for-achieving-the-international-development-targets/) - In a World Education Forum held in Senegal in 2000, the international community reaffirmed its commitment to primary education for all by the year 2015, including the elimination of gender disparity. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) there are 42 million children out-of-school and the primary school age population is projected to rise by 37 per cent
- [Does Privatization Improve Education? The Case of Chile's National Voucher Plan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/does-privatization-improve-education-the-case-of-chiles-national-voucher-plan/) - Does privatisation enhance education? Does public education improve under competitive conditions? This paper from Stanford and Illinos Universities looks to gain insights into these issues by examining school systems where vouchers have been implemented on a large scale and where private school supply has increased.The best example of voucher use worldwide is Chile.Vouchers were introduced
- [Educational Policy Choice and Policy Practice in Malawi: Dilemmas and Disjunctures](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/educational-policy-choice-and-policy-practice-in-malawi-dilemmas-and-disjunctures/) - Universal primary education is widely recognised as a key factor in reducing poverty. In Malawi, following the 1994 election, the new government introduced a programme of Free Primary Education (FPE), which increased access to education. However, as this paper for the Institute of Development Studies argues, the policy has not benefited some of the country's
- [Approaches to Civic Education:  Lessons Learned](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/approaches-to-civic-education-lessons-learned/) - Over the past decade, civic education has become a major component of USAID democracy programming. It is believed that civic education contributes to the development of a more active and informed democratic citizenry. Yet, is there hard evidence that civic education programmes really do this? Beginning in 1996, the United States Agency for International Development’s
- [Adult Civic Education in Developing Democracies: Policy Implications From a Three Country Study](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/adult-civic-education-in-developing-democracies-policy-implications-from-a-three-country-study/) - What makes a civic education programme more effective? Should donors support advocacy NGOs in conducting these programmes? This paper from the American Political Science Association 2002 conference reports the results of an on-going study on the effectiveness of adult civic education programmes in the Dominican Republic, Poland and South Africa. The impact of civic education
- [Returns to Investment in Education:  A Further Update](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/returns-to-investment-in-education-a-further-update/) - Investment in education behaves in a similar manner to investment in physical capital. How can patterns be established in view of the plethora of recent research? Can the importance of the human capital theory be reaffirmed? This World Bank Policy Research paper reviews and presents latest estimates and patterns from the literature at the turn
- [Achieving Sustainable Universal Primary Education through Debt Relief: The Case of Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/achieving-sustainable-universal-primary-education-through-debt-relief-the-case-of-kenya/) - Kenya declares basic education the right of all Kenyans. The first two decades after independence saw rising education indicators, but fiscal constraints have since reversed this trend. Could debt relief free up the resources for universal primary education? How would they best be used? A discussion paper from the World Institute for Development Economics Research
- [The Impact Of The HIV/AIDS Epidemic on the Education Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-the-hivaids-epidemic-on-the-education-sector-in-sub-saharan-africa/) - What is the impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on primary and secondary schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)? How successful are prevention strategies? This study from the University of Sussex looks at the effect of HIV/AIDS on students and teachers in Botswana, Malawi and Uganda and assesses the actual and likely future impacts on the supply
- [Partnerships between Ministries of Education and International Funding and Technical Assistance Agencies: The Case of Mozambique](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/partnerships-between-ministries-of-education-and-international-funding-and-technical-assistance-agencies-the-case-of-mozambique/) - Can governments and aid agencies establish workable partnerships to benefit local people? What factors facilitate the success of these partnerships? This study by UNESCO and the Association for the Development of Education in Africa focuses on the enabling role of the partnerships established between the Government of Mozambique (GOM) and international aid agencies in the
- [Is the Non-state Education Sector Serving the Needs of the Poor? Evidence from East and Southern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-the-non-state-education-sector-serving-the-needs-of-the-poor-evidence-from-east-and-southern-africa/) - Can the non-state sector serve the needs of the poor in education? How can the non-state and private sectors interact to provide the best education possible? This paper, presented at a Department for International Development Seminar in preparation for the 2004 World Development Report, examines the current role of the non-state sector in education and
- [Children, Education and War: Reaching Education for All Objectives in Countries Affected by Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/children-education-and-war-reaching-education-for-all-objectives-in-countries-affected-by-conflict/) - Is it possible for countries affected by conflict to meet the Education for All goals adopted in 2000 in Dakar? Clearly, with the current set of policies, it is not. What are the challenges to be met? What are the steps that must be taken? This working paper, published by the World Bank’s Conflict Prevention
- [Gender and Education: A Review of Issues for Social Policy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-and-education-a-review-of-issues-for-social-policy/) - How can equality in education be achieved? Will increased school enrolment lead to the development of society in general? This report by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) looks at global trends in female education and examines how household complexity shapes decisions about investing in education. It draws particularly on literature from
- [Planning Education In and After Emergencies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/planning-education-in-and-after-emergencies/) - Should education be provided in times of conflict? If so, how can education be introduced, implemented and managed in these situations? Does the education system prevent or contribute to conflict? This report by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) examines the current thinking on education in conflict situations and provides guidelines for
- [Poverty Reduction Outcomes in Education and Health: Public Expenditure and Aid](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-outcomes-in-education-and-health-public-expenditure-and-aid/) - Evidence suggests that there are grounds for serious concern about the efficiency and effectiveness of public spending programmes in poor countries. This Working Paper for the Centre for Aid and Public Expenditure asks how well public expenditure is working to deliver the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in education and health. It also examines how donors
- [More on the Effectiveness of Public Spending on Health Care and Education: A Covariance Structure Model](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/more-on-the-effectiveness-of-public-spending-on-health-care-and-education-a-covariance-structure-model/) - Is it possible to accurately estimate the relationship between government spending on social sectors and selected social indicators? Social programmes such as health care and education are generally thought to have a bearing on human development. Consequently, increased government expenditure in these programmes is expected to result in better social outcomes. However, in traditional econometric
- [Public-Private Partnerships for the Delivery of Basic Education Services to the Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/public-private-partnerships-for-the-delivery-of-basic-education-services-to-the-poor/) - How can Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) best be used for the delivery of basic education services to the poor? This report is based on a seminar organised by Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) and the Department for International Development (DFID), convened to discuss lessons and challenges in implementing PPPs. It focused on Pakistan, Afghanistan and India
- [The Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector in Zambia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-economic-impact-of-hivaids-on-the-education-sector-in-zambia/) - AIDS has become the leading cause of death in sub-Saharan Africa. Its impact stretches across the whole of society, but is particularly strong in the education sector, affecting both providers and users of schools. This article, published in the journal AIDS, measures and analyses the economic impact of HIV/AIDS on the supply of education in
- [Education in Situations of Emergency, Crisis and Reconstruction: UNESCO Strategy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-in-situations-of-emergency-crisis-and-reconstruction-unesco-strategy/) - Is the right to education effectively implemented in post-conflict situations? What are the actions that need to be taken in those contexts to ensure that education is of a good standard and available to all? This working paper from UNESCO presents a set of guidelines for emergency educational assistance. As children are often the main
- [SWAps and Civil Society: The Role of Civil Society Organizations In Zambia's Basic Education Sub-Sector Investment Programme](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/swaps-and-civil-society-the-role-of-civil-society-organizations-in-zambias-basic-education-sub-sector-investment-programme/) - What role can civil society play in the health and education sectors? How has the Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation (NORAD) supported Sector-Wide Approach Programme (SWAp) processes in these sectors? Using the case study of Zambia’s Basic Education Sub-Sector Investment Programme (BESSIP), this study by NORAD makes recommendations for how to improve the interaction between
- [Sector-Wide Approaches in Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/sector-wide-approaches-in-education/) - What are the key issues in the development and implementation of sector wide approaches (SWAps) in education? This desk study by the Institute for Health Sector Development (IHSD) provides an overview of experience of education SWAps in Rwanda, Uganda and Zambia to address this question and make recommendations as to how strategy development can be
- [Central America: Education Reform in a Post-Conflict Setting, Opportunities and Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/central-america-education-reform-in-a-post-conflict-setting-opportunities-and-challenges/) - The return to peace after conflict offers an opportunity to build a better future for the next generation. Transforming education systems is often at the heart of reconstruction programmes. This study for the World Bank aims to understand why the success of educational reform varies in post-conflict societies. It focuses on El Salvador, Guatemala and
- [Education, Conflict and International Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-conflict-and-international-development/) - What is the relationship between education and conflict, and how should the education sector respond to conflict? This paper, written for the Department for International Development, argues that more attention should be paid to the fact that education is not always a force for good and can sometimes help create the conditions for conflict. Donors
- [Education for All: Policy and Planning Lessons from Sri Lanka](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-for-all-policy-and-planning-lessons-from-sri-lanka/) - Two landmark global conferences on education were held in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990 and Dakar, Senegal, in 2000. They resulted in international frameworks for achieving 'Education for All' (EFA), which were meant to be translated into National Plans of Action by the end of 2002. This report, produced for DFID, examines the relationship between EFA
- [Social Rights and Economics: Claims to Health Care and Education in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-rights-and-economics-claims-to-health-care-and-education-in-developing-countries/) - What are the foundations and uses of social rights in development? What are the differences and similarities between the rights approach to health care and education, and the economic approach? This article published in World Development analyses both approaches and their policy consequences, and looks at the questions economics poses for rights approaches. It argues
- [Vouchers for Basic Education in Developing Countries: A Principal-Agent Perspective](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/vouchers-for-basic-education-in-developing-countries-a-principal-agent-perspective/) - How might education voucher programmes be useful in developing countries? What kinds of voucher programmes would be most appropriate, and what institutional infrastructure will be important for their implementation? This paper from the World Bank examines the theoretical arguments for education vouchers, using a principal-agent perspective. It reviews experience of vouchers from both industrialised and
- [The Political Economy of Public Spending on Education, Inequality and Growth](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-political-economy-of-public-spending-on-education-inequality-and-growth/) - This paper from the World Bank examines data on public spending on education in developing countries, revealing significant inequality in the distribution of resources between rich and poor groups. While current donor policy is to alleviate poverty through the universal provision of public services in developing countries, the evidence suggests that political dynamics within these
- [Rules vs. Discretion: Public and Private Funding in Zambian Basic Education Part I: Funding Equity](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rules-vs-discretion-public-and-private-funding-in-zambian-basic-education-part-i-funding-equity/) - Education is rightly considered to be one of the main instruments to achieve sustainable development and allocation of public funding to the education sector has been seen as the best way to improve it. However, does the increase in central budgetary resources necessarily attain better educational levels? Do the funds always reach the beneficiaries? This
- [Roll Call: Teacher Absence in Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/roll-call-teacher-absence-in-bangladesh/) - Where civil servants are absent from their jobs, it is likely that public service delivery will be less effective. This study for the World Bank, part of a multi-country survey, examines the extent and impact of absenteeism among teachers in Bangladesh. It also analyses the factors that influence absence and suggests some ways to tackle
- [Interim Report on Achieving the Millennium Development Goal of Universal Primary Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/interim-report-on-achieving-the-millennium-development-goal-of-universal-primary-education/) - How can the international community reach the global goal of universal primary education and gender parity in education? This interim report for the United Nations’ Millennium Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality focuses on this question, provides a review of existing knowledge, and suggests strategic priorities for technical agencies, developing and donor countries
- [Gender and Education for All: The Leap to Equality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-and-education-for-all-the-leap-to-equality/) - During the Dakar World Education Forum (2000), all countries committed to eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005. Are these goals achievable? Will the achievement of equality in education lead to a general development of society? This report, by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, monitors the progress towards the
- [Accounting for Donor Contributions to Education For All: How Should Finance be Provided? How Should it be Monitored?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/accounting-for-donor-contributions-to-education-for-all-how-should-finance-be-provided-how-should-it-be-monitored/) - How should the contributions of different donors be counted towards the Education for All (EFA) objective? What is the most effective way to provide financial support to EFA in different country circumstances? This paper by Mick Foster Economics Ltd. argues that both issues are wider than the education sector and that recommendations for the EFA
- [Program Based Approaches and International Collaboration - Experiences and Lessons from the Education Sector in India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/program-based-approaches-and-international-collaboration-experiences-and-lessons-from-the-education-sector-in-india/) - Can programme based approaches (PBAs) work in Asia as well as Africa? How should they be readjusted for the Asian context? This paper by the European Commission analyses experiences from the education sector in India to answer these questions. It finds that the PBA was valid in India, despite the challenges of adapting to the
- [Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys in Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/public-expenditure-tracking-surveys-in-education/) - Why do public resources devoted to education often produce unsatisfactory results? How can public expenditure tracking surveys (PETS) help make education services better? These questions are addressed in this study, by the International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) of UNESCO, which looks at the experiences of PETS in Uganda, Peru, and Zambia. It finds that
- [Policy Reforms and Financing of Elementary Education in India: A Study of the Quality of Service and Outcome](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/policy-reforms-and-financing-of-elementary-education-in-india-a-study-of-the-quality-of-service-and-outcome/) - How important is public expenditure in education in India, particularly in retaining children in school and improving the quality of services? This study, by the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), suggests that public expenditure per child and the rate of growth of expenditure appears not to have a strong influence on the rate
- [Education and PRSPs: A Review of Experiences](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-and-prsps-a-review-of-experiences/) - Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) signal an important change in the way developing countries are helped out of poverty. Education is seen as a major part of poverty reduction, but how far has the education sector been included in the preparation of PRSPs? What impact have PRSPs had on educational policies and priorities to date?
- [Reshaping the Future: Education and Post-Conflict Reconstruction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/reshaping-the-future-education-and-post-conflict-reconstruction/) - What is the relationship between education systems and conflict? How should policymakers deal with education in post-conflict situations? This paper by the World Bank (WB) argues that schools are usually complicit in conflict. Simultaneously, reforming education is viewed as a critical element in the strategy to reduce the risk of conflict or relapse into conflict.
- [Education Decentralization in Africa: A Review of Recent Policy and Practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-decentralization-in-africa-a-review-of-recent-policy-and-practice/) - What has been the African experience of education decentralisation? What lessons can be learned from the African experience in the wider context of international experience? This research, by the World Bank Institute, looks at that devolution of educational finance to sub-national governments. It examines the vitally important role of the community school. Finally, based on
- [The Use of Educational Vouchers in Colombia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-use-of-educational-vouchers-in-colombia/) - The idea of educational vouchers as a way of increasing choice for parents dissatisfied with their children's schooling was originally articulated in the 1960s. What are the implications of this voucher system in developing countries? Can it enhance achievement among students and encourage improvement through increased competition among schools? This paper, compiled for Teachers College,
- [The Right to Education for People With Disabilities: Towards Inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-right-to-education-for-people-with-disabilities-towards-inclusion/) - Realising the right to education for people with disabilities is challenging, but entirely necessary to achieve the Millennium Development Goals of Education for All (EFA) by 2015. This EFA Flagship paper presents a rights-based case for the inclusion of all people with disabilities in basic education and their engagement at all levels in policy and
- [User Fees in Primary Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/user-fees-in-primary-education/) - Are fees an obstacle to enrolment in primary education? Should the World Bank support the abolition of fees? This paper by the World Bank reviews the issues surrounding user fees, or direct household payments for education, and makes recommendations for action by the World Bank. It finds that fees are common in primary education around
- [Improving the Delivery of Health and Education Services in Difficult Environments: Lessons from Case Studies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/improving-the-delivery-of-health-and-education-services-in-difficult-environments-lessons-from-case-studies/) - How can service delivery interventions be improved in difficult environments? This report by the United Kingdom Government's Department for International Development (DFID) analyses the situation in a range of so-called 'difficult environments'. It argues that, while it is commonly acknowledged that poverty alleviation requires more aid, better trade and progress on debt relief, there is
- [Livelihood Strategies and Performance of Ghana's Health and Education Sectors: Exploring the Connections](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/livelihood-strategies-and-performance-of-ghanas-health-and-education-sectors-exploring-the-connections/) - What is the impact of economic reforms on the livelihood strategies of public sector employees? Is there a relationship between the livelihood strategies of employees and the performance of public sector organisations? Through discussion of the education and health sectors in Ghana, this paper from Iowa State University argues that such a linkage might help
- [Is Private Education Good for the Poor?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-private-education-good-for-the-poor/) - Many believe that the private sector has little to offer in terms of reaching the Millennium Development Goal of 'education for all' by 2015. Private education is often assumed to be concerned only with serving the elite or middle classes, not the poor. What is the nature and extent of private education for the poor?
- [Evaluation of DFID Development Assistance: Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment, Phase II Thematic Evaluation: Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/evaluation-of-dfid-development-assistance-gender-equality-and-womens-empowerment-phase-ii-thematic-evaluation-education/) - Despite concerted efforts, the 2005 Millennium Development Goal (MDG) on gender parity in education is likely to be missed in over 75 countries. Reasons for failure include direct costs (fees), demand for girls' labour, socio-cultural norms and traditions, lack of appropriate facilities, and abuse. Teachers' attitudes and curricula may reinforce stereotypes. Given these multiple constraints,
- [Capacity Building for Decentralised Education Service Delivery in Ethiopia and Pakistan: A Comparative Analysis](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/capacity-building-for-decentralised-education-service-delivery-in-ethiopia-and-pakistan-a-comparative-analysis/) - What factors matter most in achieving effective, devolved education service delivery? What can be learned from experiences of capacity building for decentralised education? This report for the European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM) compares the findings of case studies in Ethiopia and Pakistan in relation to these questions. Ethiopia provides the more propitious environment
- [Winning People's Will for Girl Child Education: Community Mobilization for Gender Equality in Basic Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/winning-peoples-will-for-girl-child-education-community-mobilization-for-gender-equality-in-basic-education/) - What are the factors affecting the low rate of school enrolment among girls in deprived communities in Nepal? Is it possible to develop long-term strategies to improve school attendance? Based on the results of an action-research project carried out in two caste areas in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal, this UNESCO report concludes that sustainable
- [The Cost of Poverty: Transaction Costs and the Struggle to Make Aid Work in the Education Sector in Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-cost-of-poverty-transaction-costs-and-the-struggle-to-make-aid-work-in-the-education-sector-in-tanzania/) - One of the most frequently quoted expectations of donor harmonization is reduced transaction costs. Can harmonization reduce transaction costs? Can reduced transaction costs (TCs) increase aid effectiveness? This paper by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was written at a critical time of change in government/development partner relations in Tanzania in 2004. It looks at
- [Education in the 21st Century: Conflict, Reconstruction and Reconciliation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-in-the-21st-century-conflict-reconstruction-and-reconciliation/) - What is the role of education in relation to conflict and reconstruction? This paper, presented at the 2004 annual conference of the British Association for International and Comparative Education, argues that conflict sensitivity needs to be considered as a routine aspect of long-term planning and development of all education systems.There is growing recognition by policymakers of the
- [Collaborating in Education for All? Experiences of Government Support for Non-state Provision of Basic Education in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/collaborating-in-education-for-all-experiences-of-government-support-for-non-state-provision-of-basic-education-in-south-asia-and-sub-saharan-africa/) - What support have non-state providers (NSPs) of basic education been given by governments in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa? How could governments and NSPs collaborate better to improve pro-poor education provision? This paper from Public Administration and Development analyses the quality of policy dialogue, regulation, facilitation and contracting in government-NSP education collaborations in Bangladesh, Pakistan,
- [Can Information Campaigns Spark Local Participation and Improve Outcomes? A Study of Primary Education in Uttar Pradesh, India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/can-information-campaigns-spark-local-participation-and-improve-outcomes-a-study-of-primary-education-in-uttar-pradesh-india/) - What role can local community participation in basic service delivery play in promoting development outcomes? This World Bank working paper considers the participation of Village Education Committees (VECs) in improving primary education services in Uttar Pradesh, India. It reports findings from a survey of public schools, households and VEC members on the state of education
- [Education in Fragile States: Capturing Lessons and Identifying Good Practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-in-fragile-states-capturing-lessons-and-identifying-good-practice/) - Poor access to education and gender inequalities are common in states experiencing conflict or emerging from conflict. This paper, prepared for the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) Fragile States Group, looks at how development assistance in fragile states can enhance access to education for the poor and vulnerable, improve governance and increase aid effectiveness. It
- [Bosnian Education for Security and Peacebuilding?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/bosnian-education-for-security-and-peacebuilding/) - How do education systems reinforce ethno-cultural differences? What role can education play in conflict-prevention and peace building? This paper published in the journal International Peacekeeping examines education as a security issue in Bosnia Herzegovina (BiH) and reflects on the prospects for a sustainable peace aided by education.In many states, education policy and curricular debates can
- [The Impact of Nutrition during Early Childhood on Education among Guatemalan Adults](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-nutrition-during-early-childhood-on-education-among-guatemalan-adults/) - Early childhood nutrition is thought to have important effects on education, broadly defined to include various forms of learning. This paper advances beyond previous literature on the effect of early childhood nutrition on education in developing countries by using unique longitudinal data begun during a nutritional experiment during early childhood with educational outcomes measured in
- [Role of Education and the Demobilization of Child Soldiers - Aspects of an Appropriate Education Program for Child Soldiers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/role-of-education-and-the-demobilization-of-child-soldiers-aspects-of-an-appropriate-education-program-for-child-soldiers/) - What is the role of education in the successful reintegration of child soldiers into their families and communities? This issue paper from USAID examines the challenges facing child soldiers who have returned from war and discusses local responses and government policies which might promote their rehabilitation. Families and communities should be closely involved in children’s
- [Educational Governance at Local Levels](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/educational-governance-at-local-levels/) - Can decentralisation improve education and its governance? This United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) booklet provides a Policy Paper on implementing educational decentralisation, followed by Evaluation Guidelines to evaluate progress at country level. It finds that if decentralisation is to succeed, then it must be planned and funded at all levels and its
- [NGO Provision of Basic Education: Alternative or Complementary Service Delivery to Support Access to the Excluded?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ngo-provision-of-basic-education-alternative-or-complementary-service-delivery-to-support-access-to-the-excluded/) - What role should NGOs take in providing basic education? How effective is NGO provision in facilitating access to education? This paper from the Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity shows that NGOs increasingly see themselves as providing education services that are complementary rather than parallel to the state system. However, there is
- [School Voices: Challenges Facing Education Systems After Identity-based Conflicts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/school-voices-challenges-facing-education-systems-after-identity-based-conflicts/) - Since the mid-1990s, increased attention has been paid to the role of schools in post-conflict societies. There has been more focus on how schools contributed to identity-based conflicts and how schools might address the socially constructed schisms that led initially to the conflicts. Moreover, there is increasing recognition of the importance of community processes in
- [Putting the Power of Transparency in Context: Information’s Role in Reducing Corruption in Uganda’s Education Sector](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/putting-the-power-of-transparency-in-context-informations-role-in-reducing-corruption-in-ugandas-education-sector/) - An often-told story in development circles is how corruption was slashed in Uganda simply by publishing the amounts of monthly grants to schools. This paper from the Center for Global Development examines the case in the context of Uganda’s changing education policy from 1991-2002. While information did play a critical role in achieving a percentage
- [Empowering Communities for Improved Educational Outcomes: Some Evaluation Findings from the World Bank](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/empowering-communities-for-improved-educational-outcomes-some-evaluation-findings-from-the-world-bank/) - How effective are community empowerment programmes in World Bank-supported educational programmes? Can community-led school management help to improve the quality of teaching and learning for the poor and disadvantaged? This article reviews 12 country case studies for evidence of their effectiveness. It suggests that school development features that contribute to learning outcomes – such as
- [Social Exclusion and the Gender Gap in Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-exclusion-and-the-gender-gap-in-education/) - Why is there still a gender gap in education in some countries? This policy research paper for the World Bank Human Development Network Chief Economists Office reviews gender in education and tests the relevance of ethno-linguistic fractionalisation (ELF) in explaining cross-country differences in learning and school attainment.Evidence from cross-country studies, household surveys, and anthropological observation
- [Pitfalls of Participatory Programs: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Education in India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/pitfalls-of-participatory-programs-evidence-from-a-randomized-evaluation-in-education-in-india/) - Is participation the panacea for the problems of service delivery in developing countries? This paper for the World Bank Development Research Human Development and Public Services Team evaluates three different participatory interventions aimed at improving education in Uttar Pradesh, India. Experience and political economy arguments suggest that government bureaucracies are ill equipped to improve the
- [Improving the Provision of Basic Services for the Poor in Fragile Environments: Education Sector International Literature Review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/improving-the-provision-of-basic-services-for-the-poor-in-fragile-environments-education-sector-international-literature-review/) - How can donors and partner governments best support education provision in fragile states? This literature review is one of three sectoral reports from the Overseas Development Institute on service delivery in fragile states. Education offers opportunities for addressing root causes of state fragility, but remains a marginalised element of international humanitarian response. Engagement with the
- [Pitfalls of Participatory Programs: Evidence From a Randomized Evaluation in Education in India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/pitfalls-of-participatory-programs-evidence-from-a-randomized-evaluation-in-education-in-india-2/) - Participation of beneficiaries in the monitoring of education services is seen as a key mechanism for improving their efficiency. The government in India organizes both locally elected leaders and parents of children enrolled in public schools into committees. These committees are given powers over resource allocation, monitoring and management of school performance. The paper finds
- [A Framework for Assessing the Effectiveness of the Delivery of Education Aid in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-framework-for-assessing-the-effectiveness-of-the-delivery-of-education-aid-in-fragile-states/) - How can the effectiveness of education aid in fragile states be assessed and improved? This paper from the Journal of Education for International Development presents an assessment framework based on OECD principles of coordination, state building and 'do no harm'. The framework is applied to four approaches to education aid (sector-wide approaches, trust funds, social
- [The Role and Impact of Public-Private Partnerships in Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-and-impact-of-public-private-partnerships-in-education/) - How effective are public-private partnerships (PPPs) at improving education in the developing world? This book, published by the World Bank, argues that PPPs can increase equity in education systems and improve education quality. In addition, such arrangements can make service delivery effective and expand possibilities for financing the education sector. Although few rigorous studies have
- [Donors' Engagement: Supporting Education in Fragile and Conflict-affected States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/donors-engagement-supporting-education-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - To what extent have international aid donors increased their political and financial commitments to education programmes in the poorest countries? This International Institute for Educational Planning report examines the changing nature of donors’ engagement in supporting education in fragile and conflict-affected states. While some donors have increased the priority given to education, many countries will
- [Education in Peace Agreements, 1989-2005](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-in-peace-agreements-1989-2005/) - How has education been addressed in peace agreements? This paper from the Conflict Resolution Quarterly aims to fill a gap in research by providing a systematic overview of the way education has been included in peace agreements and its role as a peacemaking strategy. The way in which education is addressed varies significantly in terms
- [Education and Fragility: A New Framework](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-and-fragility-a-new-framework/) - What is the relationship between education and fragility? How can education mitigate fragility and promote stability? This article from The Journal of Education for International Development presents a new framework for education programming in fragile and conflict-affected states. Developed by USAID in 2006, the framework casts education in the forefront of programming priorities as a
- [Gender as an Entry Point for Addressing Social Exclusion and Multiple Disparities in Education](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gender-as-an-entry-point-for-addressing-social-exclusion-and-multiple-disparities-in-education/) - This paper proposes that multiple disparities in education might be best addressed by working through gender. It provides an exploration of the gender disparities pointing out links to the social and educational exclusion of marginalised groups. The discussion is structured around three main themes: Identities, Power and Processes and Methodologies. This paper was presented at
- [Capacity Development for Education Service Delivery in Pakistan: Top-down Devolution](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/capacity-development-for-education-service-delivery-in-pakistan-top-down-devolution/) - How successful has capacity development for decentralised education service delivery been in Pakistan? This article examines capacity issues in two programmes: the provincial-level Punjab Education Sector Reform Programme (PESRP) and the district-level Strategic Policy Unit (SPU) of Faisalabad City District Government. These delivered major improvements in education delivery capacity in just four years. Political leadership
- [Civic Education and Peacebuilding: Examples from Iraq and Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/civic-education-and-peacebuilding-examples-from-iraq-and-sudan/) - Between 2006 and 2010, the United States Institute of Peace developed several civic education programs for Iraq and Sudan as part of broader efforts to promote postconflict stability and development and help prevent a return to violence. This report describes those programs after first examining the conceptual bases for civic education and how they differ
- [Improving Educational Quality through Enhancing Community Participation: Results from a Randomised Field Experiment in Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/improving-educational-quality-through-enhancing-community-participation-results-from-a-randomised-field-experiment-in-indonesia/) - As school enrolment and attainment rise across developing countries, policymakers are increasingly directing attention to interventions that affect student learning. In this context, how effective is making schools accountable for performance in addressing deficiencies in service provision? This study evaluates the effect of four randomised interventions aimed at strengthening school committees, and subsequently improving learning
- [Mass Media and Public Services: The Effect of Radio Access on Public Education in Benin](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mass-media-and-public-services-the-effect-of-radio-access-on-public-education-in-benin/) - Does radio access improve public service provision? And if so, does it do so by increasing government accountability to citizens, or by persuading households to take advantage of publicly-provided services? Using data from Benin, this paper finds that literacy rates among school children are higher in villages exposed to signals from a larger number of
- [Understanding Education's Role in Fragility - Synthesis of four situational analyses of education and fragility: Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Liberia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/understanding-educations-role-in-fragility-synthesis-of-four-situational-analyses-of-education-and-fragility-afghanistan-bosnia-and-herzegovina-cambodia-liberia/) - This report finds that education can have both negative and positive impacts on fragility. Education planning needs to consider these potential impacts. Education programming can mitigate fragility by; strengthening the education system itself; improving the capacity of individuals and groups to cope with fragility; and targeting the context of fragility (such as by promoting nation-building
- [Non-State Providers and Public-Private Partnerships in Education for the Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/non-state-providers-and-public-private-partnerships-in-education-for-the-poor/) - How can non-state providers of education and public private partnerships work most effectively for poor people in East Asia and the Pacific? This report highlights issues, opportunities and challenges related to non-state providers and their partnerships with the state in fulfilling the right to education for all. It argues that non-state providers present a significant
- [Real Governance Beyond the 'Failed State': Negotiating Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/real-governance-beyond-the-failed-state-negotiating-education-in-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/) - How are state services governed even when the state administration has retreated from the public domain? Failed states are often described as a vacuum of authority, yet although there is often no overall regulatory authority, this does not mean that sectors are ungoverned. This article describes the organisation of the educational system in the Democratic
- [The Hidden Crisis: Armed Conflict and Education - Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2011](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-hidden-crisis-armed-conflict-and-education-education-for-all-global-monitoring-report-2011/) - To what extent are the goals of Education for All being achieved in countries affected by armed conflict? This report shows that there is not only a lack of provision of education but also a failure to protect education systems and their students, and to devote sufficient funds to education in reconstruction and peacebuilding programmes.
- [Understanding and Improving Accountability in Education: A Conceptual Framework and Guideposts from Three Decentralization Reform Experiences in Latin America](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/understanding-and-improving-accountability-in-education-a-conceptual-framework-and-guideposts-from-three-decentralization-reform-experiences-in-latin-america/) - This paper builds a framework for understanding accountability reforms in the education sector and develops three illustrative Latin American cases of governance reform in the education sector (Chile, Nicaragua and Bogotá, Colombia). This framework pays attention to exit and voice alternatives (where exit alternatives introduce competition between providers and voice alternatives allow parents to express
- [2012 Education for All Global Monitoring Report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/2012-education-for-all-global-monitoring-report/) - The 2012 Education for All Global Monitoring Report examines how skills development programmes can be improved to boost young people’s opportunities for decent jobs and better lives. This report evaluates progress towards the six education for all (EFA) goals, and shows that progress towards many of the goals is slowing down.Most EFA goals are unlikely
- [Is School Education Breaking the Cycle of Poverty for Children?: Factors Shaping Education Inequalities in Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/is-school-education-breaking-the-cycle-of-poverty-for-children-factors-shaping-education-inequalities-in-ethiopia-india-peru-and-vietnam/) - School education is held up as an ‘escape route from poverty’. Millions of poor children and families are buying into this promise and often investing scarce resources in going to school, in the hope that it will lead to a better life. This paper looks at children’s unequal trajectories from early childhood through to the
- [Education attainment in public administration around the world: Evidence from a new dataset](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/education-attainment-in-public-administration-around-the-world-evidence-from-a-new-dataset/) - The paper provides a detailed description of a novel dataset on education attainment in public administrations covering the period 1981-2011 for 178 countries. The dataset uses information extracted from CVs for over 130,000 mid to senior level officials from mainly central banks and ministries of economy and finance. Key findings: The main finding is that
- [Check my school: A Case Study on Citizens’ Monitoring of the Education Sector in the Philippines](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/check-my-school-a-case-study-on-citizens-monitoring-of-the-education-sector-in-the-philippines/) - This case study sheds light on the design and implementation features of the first pilot cycle of Check My School (CMS) in public schools across the Philippines. The case study discusses the general political background and operating environment of the CMS project, its concept and operating principles, the roles and incentives of the major stakeholders
- [The impact of adult civic education programmes in developing democracies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-adult-civic-education-programmes-in-developing-democracies/) - This paper, based on four USAID-sponsored impact evaluations conducted since the late 1990s, finds that civic education programmes can have meaningful and relatively long-lasting effects in increasing political information and feelings of empowerment, and in mobilising individuals to engage in political participation. But they are much less likely to affect more ‘deep-seated’ democratic values such
- [A New Agenda for Education in Fragile States](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-new-agenda-for-education-in-fragile-states/) - This report provides a broad review of the field of education in fragile states and charts a new agenda for maximizing education’s contribution to the development and well-being of people living in these contexts. Recommendations made are based on evidence developed both from the analysis and synthesis of the latest available data as well as
- [Outside the Circle: A research initiative by Plan International into the rights of children with disabilities to education and protection in West Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/outside-the-circle-a-research-initiative-by-plan-international-into-the-rights-of-children-with-disabilities-to-education-and-protection-in-west-africa/) - Children with disabilities across West Africa are subject to profound levels of poverty, exclusion and discrimination. They are widely excluded from education and denied access to protection services as well as other rights enjoyed by abled children. This report outlines why children with disabilities are denied these basic rights; why they are outside the circle.
- [Multiple pathways to gender-sensitive budget support in the education sector](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/multiple-pathways-to-gender-sensitive-budget-support-in-the-education-sector/) - In order to correct for the initial gender blindness of the Paris Declaration and related aid modalities as general and sector budget support, it has been proposed to integrate a gender dimension into budget support entry points. This paper studies the effectiveness of (joint) gender working groups and the integration of sex-disaggregated indicators and targets
- [The technical is political: understanding the political implications of sector characteristics for education service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-technical-is-political-understanding-the-political-implications-of-sector-characteristics-for-education-service-delivery/) - This brief, the first in a series, attempts to help bridge the gap between governance and sector specialists by examining the politics and governance of education through a technical, ‘sector characteristics’ lens. The characteristics of specific sectors have largely been considered as technicalities, but new research illustrates that they also have political implications. This study
- [Support for African Women's Equality Rises: Education, jobs & political participation still unequal](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/support-for-african-womens-equality-rises-education-jobs-political-participation-still-unequal/) - Widespread support for equality, alongside approval of most governments' attempts to empower women, suggest that a majority of Africans have embraced gender equality and reject traditional norms that hold women back. However, women continue to be disadvantaged in critical ways, especially through lack of equal education – a gap that has long-term implications for women’s
- [Peace Education and Conflict Transformation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/peace-education-and-conflict-transformation/) - This paper looks at the contribution peace education can make to conflict transformation, focusing on the one hand, on the theoretical foundations of peace education and, on the other, on developing context-appropriate practical approaches.The paper develops a basic concept of internationally oriented, context-related and process-oriented peace education. It also presents a comprehensive and practical approach
- [Why and how of understanding ‘subjective’ wellbeing: Exploratory work by the WeD group in four developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/why-and-how-of-understanding-subjective-wellbeing-exploratory-work-by-the-wed-group-in-four-developing-countries/) - The paper reviews participatory studies carried out in developing countries during the past decade and contrasts their findings with qualitative data from the initial phase of the Wellbeing in Developing Countries ESRC Research Group’s exploration of quality of life. This used primarily qualitative methods to establish the categories and components of subjective quality of life
- [Governance, democracy and the politics of wellbeing](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/governance-democracy-and-the-politics-of-wellbeing/) - This paper examines the relationship between democracy and organised violence with reference to Bangladesh and builds on primary data gathered as part of a more general exploration into the politics of wellbeing. It highlights the significance of an emerging governance landscape that rests on two linked social phenomena: the deepening of political party activity and
- [Analysing Wellbeing: a Framework for Development Practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/analysing-wellbeing-a-framework-for-development-practice/) - This paper is a piece of advocacy for the use of wellbeing analysis in social and development policy and practice, drawing on the work of the Wellbeing in Developing Countries Research Group (WeD) at the University of Bath, UK. The paper offers a simple definition of wellbeing, and then explores the three basic dimensions that
- [How Much Does Women’s Empowerment Influence their Wellbeing? Evidence from Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/how-much-does-womens-empowerment-influence-their-wellbeing-evidence-from-africa/) - This paper uses survey data from rural Senegal to model the effects on married women’s subjective wellbeing of the amount of freedom they have in the home. Senegal has a democratically elected government, which broadly supports human rights and women’s empowerment, but this contrasts with conservative attitudes towards women in some traditional rural communities. Our
- [To be well at heart: women's perceptions of psychosocial wellbeing in three conflict affected countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/to-be-well-at-heart-womens-perceptions-of-psychosocial-wellbeing-in-three-conflict-affected-countries/) - This article presents the results of a participatory study utilising ethnographic methods to develop a phenomenological understanding of how women in three conflict-affected settings understand, experience and operationalise the term ‘psychosocial well-being’. The study was conducted in three countries (Burundi, Nepal and Uganda), where CARE Österreich (an international relief and development organisation) has been implementing
- [Fighting Chronic Poverty with Social Inclusion and Establishing Rights at Work: Reconstructing the Livelihood of the Kamaiya Ex Bonded Labourers of Western Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fighting-chronic-poverty-with-social-inclusion-and-establishing-rights-at-work-reconstructing-the-livelihood-of-the-kamaiya-ex-bonded-labourers-of-western-nepal/) - How can chronically poor and disenfranchised groups in be reached by poverty reduction efforts? This draft paper, prepared for the Chronic Poverty Research Centre, discusses measures for the social inclusion of ex-bonded labourers, and for promotion of their rights at work. It argues that the chronic poor require more than just economic support if they
- [The Poverty-Growth-Inequality Triangle](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-poverty-growth-inequality-triangle/) - Should development strategies focus on growth, or poverty, or inequality? How does income distribution affect poverty reduction? How does growth impact on income distribution? This paper by the World Bank analyses the relationships between poverty, growth and inequality. The paper argues that both growth and changes in inequality play a major role in poverty reduction.Poverty
- [Do Political Regimes Matter? Poverty Reduction and Regime Differences Across India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/do-political-regimes-matter-poverty-reduction-and-regime-differences-across-india/) - Do political factors influence poverty reduction policies in India? This chapter from a book, published by the University of Michigan Press, examines the impact of the different sub-national political regimes of the major Indian states on, firstly, the factors that are instrumental for reducing rural poverty and, secondly, the adoption and financing of pro-poor public
- [Are Global Poverty and Inequality getting Worse?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/are-global-poverty-and-inequality-getting-worse/) - Are levels of global poverty and inequality getting worse? What are the means for reducing poverty and inequality at a worldwide level? This chapter from a book, published by Polity, contains an exchange of views between two leading experts, Martin Wolf and Robert Wade. Wolf claims that there has been a decline in world-wide levels
- [Democratic Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction: Exploring the Linkages](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/democratic-decentralisation-and-poverty-reduction-exploring-the-linkages/) - What are the links between democratic decentralisation and poverty reduction? This paper from the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) finds little connection between democratic decentralisation and poverty reduction in the short-term. It is only under certain conditions – for example when extended participation or accountability mechanisms are adopted – that decentralisation will work to
- [Economic Growth, Health and Poverty: An Exploratory Study for India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/economic-growth-health-and-poverty-an-exploratory-study-for-india/) - What are the links between economic growth, poverty and health? This article for Development Policy Review examines the question using data from 15 major Indian states. It argues that, while growth tends to reduce poverty, substantial improvements in health status are also required for poverty alleviation.Considerable research has been done on the relationship between poverty
- [Politics and the PRSP Approach: Bolivia Case Study](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/politics-and-the-prsp-approach-bolivia-case-study/) - The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) approach to aid and development, which replaces earlier donor-led initiatives, still has its critics. One hotly disputed but under-researched issue is how PRSP processes affect, and are affected by, the political development of the recipient country. A series of working papers from the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) examines this
- [Fighting Poverty in Africa: Are PRSPs Making a Difference?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fighting-poverty-in-africa-are-prsps-making-a-difference/) - Does the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) process represent a significant change in approach to lending by international financial institutions (IFIs) and donors? Has it increased national ownership and effectiveness of poverty reduction efforts? This book, based on a study commissioned by the Strategic Partnership for Africa and published by the Overseas Development Institute, examines
- [Report on the Asian Development Bank’s Law and Policy Reform Activities in Support of Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/report-on-the-asian-development-banks-law-and-policy-reform-activities-in-support-of-poverty-reduction/) - How does the Asian Development Bank (ADB) approach legal and judicial policy reform in its member countries? This report outlines its main areas of operation and priorities for the future. In line with the Bank’s commitment to poverty reduction, the scope of its work in the sector has been expanded to include interventions that address
- [Decentralisation and Poverty in Developing Countries: Exploring the Impact](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/decentralisation-and-poverty-in-developing-countries-exploring-the-impact/) - How does decentralisation affect poverty? What policies are important? This study, by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), uses the experience of 19 countries to suggest the impact of decentralisation on poverty is far from straightforward. Its usefulness varies between poor countries on one side and emerging economies on the other. In addition
- [Poverty Reduction Budget Support](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-budget-support/) - Poverty Reduction Budget Support (PRBS) is a form of aid in which funds to support development programmes are provided directly to a partner government’s exchequer. The Department for International Development (DFID) believes that, where appropriate, it is the best instrument for creating a relationship between donor and partner countries that will build state accountability and
- [Taxation, Governance and Poverty: Where Do the Middle Income Countries Fit?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/taxation-governance-and-poverty-where-do-the-middle-income-countries-fit/) - Among development interventions, tax reform has been widely regarded as a technical matter. Yet it can have a wider impact on development goals, improving governance and reducing poverty. This paper from the Institute of Development Studies argues that middle income countries can achieve significant results by pursuing tax reform, which could also bring indirect benefits
- [Transforming the Concessional State? The Politics of Honduras’ Poverty Reduction Strategy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/transforming-the-concessional-state-the-politics-of-honduras-poverty-reduction-strategy/) - Participation is claimed to be a key component of the controversial Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs). But are PRSPs really participatory? Who has an input and who is excluded from the process? What is the impact of PRSPs on local democratic institutions and socio-political configuration? A series of case studies carried out by the University
- [Forging the Future: Engaging Law Students and Young Lawyers in Public Service, Human Rights, and Poverty Alleviation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/forging-the-future-engaging-law-students-and-young-lawyers-in-public-service-human-rights-and-poverty-alleviation/) - It is widely proven that providing legal services to the poor enhances development in general. But how can this best be done and why is the donor community in general not funding existing initiatives? This Open Society Justice Initiative Issues Paper advocates the use of Clinical Legal Education (CLE) and seeks to fill the informational
- [Poverty Reduction Strategy Processes in Malawi and Zambia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-strategy-processes-in-malawi-and-zambia/) - To what extent are the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) developed by Malawi and Zambia nationally owned? What impact has the PRSP process had on power relations and accountability? This report from the Chr. Michelsen Institute analyses the participation of different actors and argues that while civil society played a significant role, key political institutions
- [Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/decentralisation-and-poverty-reduction/) - What is the impact of decentralisation on poverty reduction? It is generally agreed that decentralisation does contribute to poverty alleviation. However, this paper by the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research and the University of Ghana demonstrates that the effect of decentralisation is dependent on certain variables. Political, administrative and fiscal decentralisation need to
- [Guidance Note on Poverty Reduction Strategy Alignment](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/guidance-note-on-poverty-reduction-strategy-alignment/) - The international community has committed itself to aligning its aid programmes to national Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSs). What does this mean in practice? This report by the Department for International Development (DFID) provides a detailed definition of PRS alignment in order to guide the design and monitoring of country programmes and DFID’s work with international
- [Poverty Reduction Strategy Process and National Development Strategies in Asia: Synthesis Report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-strategy-process-and-national-development-strategies-in-asia-synthesis-report/) - What are the complementarities and contradictions between the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) process and existing National Development Strategies? Are PRS processes enhancing poverty reduction and leading to stronger, more pro-poor, more accountable national planning processes? This study by the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London informs the UK Department for
- [Poverty Reduction Strategy Process and National Development Strategies in Asia: Vietnam Country Study](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-strategy-process-and-national-development-strategies-in-asia-vietnam-country-study/) - Vietnam has established an impressive track record of growth and poverty reduction over the past decade. How has it managed this? How do Vietnam's national plans compare with the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) approved in 2002? This study by the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London argues that although
- [Poverty Reduction Strategy Process and National Development Strategies in Asia: Nepal Country Study](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-strategy-process-and-national-development-strategies-in-asia-nepal-country-study/) - How do Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) processes compliment and contradict existing National Development Strategies? This study by the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London focuses on strategic and institutional issues for poverty reduction planning in Nepal and forms part of a wider study covering India and Vietnam as well.
- [Pro-Growth, Pro-Poor: Is there a Trade Off?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/pro-growth-pro-poor-is-there-a-trade-off/) - Is a pro-growth strategy always the best pro-poor strategy? What kind of policies should countries pursue to reduce poverty? This paper for the World Bank's PREM Poverty Group provides an empirical evaluation of a series of pro-growth policies on inequality and headcount poverty.The importance of growth for poverty reduction is widely recognised. Countries that have
- [Fracture Points in Social Policies for Chronic Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fracture-points-in-social-policies-for-chronic-poverty-reduction/) - Why are the needs of the chronically poor not being fully addressed? Why are they left off the policy agenda? This document by the Overseas Development Institute examines the fracture points in social policy formation and suggests why it is that policy responses are weak. It shows that the issues relevant to the chronically poor
- [The Poverty Reduction Strategy Initiative: An Independent Evaluation of the World Bank’s Support Through 2003](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-poverty-reduction-strategy-initiative-an-independent-evaluation-of-the-world-banks-support-through-2003/) - The Poverty Reduction Strategy Initiative aims to improve the effectiveness of poverty reduction efforts and serve as a framework for external assistance. How has it performed against these key aims? How relevant is the initiative to individual countries? This paper from the World Banks Operations Evaluation Department evaluates progress to date and makes key recommendations
- [Poverty Reduction Strategy Process and National Development Strategies in Asia: India Country Study](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-strategy-process-and-national-development-strategies-in-asia-india-country-study/) - Does India's 10th Plan meet the criteria of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)? Will it enhance poverty reduction and lead to more pro-poor, more accountable national planning processes? This research by London University argues that while India's 10th Plan has many strengths, it is furthest from the best practice model with regards to its
- [Costa Rica and El Salvador: Finding the Appropriate Role for the Public and Private Sectors in Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/costa-rica-and-el-salvador-finding-the-appropriate-role-for-the-public-and-private-sectors-in-poverty-reduction/) - While economic growth is an important determinant of poverty, investment in human capital, particularly in the health and education of the poor, is the key determinant of sustained poverty reduction. What are the key factors in implementing successful social policy reform and improving the targeting of services to the poor? Compiled for the World Bank,
- [Power, Rights, and Poverty: Concepts and Connections](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/power-rights-and-poverty-concepts-and-connections/) - Discussions about power and rights are increasingly taking place in international development agencies, but the activity of those organisations does not reflect this. This report brings together background materials and discussions from a working meeting between the World Bank and DFID that focussed on understanding the conceptual underpinnings and relationships among power, rights and poverty
- [Labour Standards and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/labour-standards-and-poverty-reduction/) - How can labour standards contribute to poverty reduction? This paper, written by the UK Department for International Development (DFID), focuses on the nature and impact of labour standards in developing countries. Effective and well-judged implementation of labour standards can play an important role in reducing global poverty and achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). A
- ['Social Exclusion' Discourse and Chronic Poverty: A South African Case Study](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-exclusion-discourse-and-chronic-poverty-a-south-african-case-study/) - The concept of social exclusion has become increasingly dominant in European and UK debates about poverty. This article, published in the journal 'Development and Change', questions the export of ‘social exclusion’ discourse to the field of development and poverty studies. It considers the results of research into chronic poverty in the Ceres district of South
- [Good Governance, Institutional Reform, and Poverty Reduction in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/good-governance-institutional-reform-and-poverty-reduction-in-africa/) - How can good governance and institutional reform bring about poverty reduction in Africa? Which policies and institutions are the right ones? How can causal relationships between good governance and measures of well-being be established? This essay, from the University of Quebec in Montreal, focuses on the World Bank's (WB) commitment to poverty reduction over the
- [Power Relations and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/power-relations-and-poverty-reduction/) - The concept of power is central to social science, but receives relatively little attention in development policy analysis. This paper presented at a joint World Bank/DFID workshop argues that power inequalities have a significant impact on the achievement of poverty reduction goals. Examples from DFID partner states in India show that the politicisation of poverty
- [Tracking Poverty Reduction Expenditures Under the PRSP](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/tracking-poverty-reduction-expenditures-under-the-prsp/) - How much money has been channelled into poverty reduction through Zambia’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)? This report by the Civil Society for Poverty Reduction (CSPR) uses expenditure data to track anti-poverty spending under the PRSP. It suggests that greater political will is required to ensure that Poverty Reduction Programmes (PRPs) actually receive 100 percent
- [Poverty Monitoring Guidance Note 1: Selecting Indicators](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-monitoring-guidance-note-1-selecting-indicators/) - What is the best method for selecting appropriate indicators to monitor the implementation of poverty reduction strategies? This paper from the World Bank provides a summary of good practice for selecting such indicators. In general, it is preferable to select a few good quality indicators which are easily measurable within the current capacity and which
- [Paying the Price: Why Rich Countries Must Invest Now in a War on Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/paying-the-price-why-rich-countries-must-invest-now-in-a-war-on-poverty/) - What investments are needed to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)? This study from Oxfam suggests that donor countries can afford to increase aid and reduce the burden of debt. To stand a chance of meeting the MDGs, world governments must draw up a Millennium Plan that makes binding commitments to reform international trade rules
- [Moving On Up Out of Poverty: What Does Democracy Have to Do with it?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/moving-on-up-out-of-poverty-what-does-democracy-have-to-do-with-it/) - What is the relationship between governance and poverty? Do democracies eliminate poverty more effectively than authoritarian regimes? This working paper from Stanford University's Centre on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law suggests that the obstacles to the elimination of poverty are largely political. Poverty is generated and reproduced by power disparity and abuse. The
- [Democratic Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction in Madhya Pradesh: Searching for an Institutional Equilibrium](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/democratic-decentralisation-and-poverty-reduction-in-madhya-pradesh-searching-for-an-institutional-equilibrium/) - Can successful decentralisation outcomes occur in an environment characterised by highly unequal wealth distribution, semi-feudal social structures and low literacy? This article from Development in Practice reviews decentralisation in Madhya Pradesh (MP), an Indian state that emerged as an institutional design leader in the 1990s. While the first phase of MP decentralisation led to new
- [Policy Expectations and Programme Reality: The Poverty Reduction and Labour Market Impact of Two Public Works Programmes in South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/policy-expectations-and-programme-reality-the-poverty-reduction-and-labour-market-impact-of-two-public-works-programmes-in-south-africa/) - How effective has South Africa been in reducing poverty and promoting employment through public works programmes (PWPs)? This study explores the contribution of PWPs to social protection in South Africa by examining the Gundo Lashu programme in Limpopo and the Zibambele programme in KwaZulu Natal. It argues that, for reasons of both design and scale,
- [Alliances Against Poverty: DFID’s Experience in Peru 2000-2005](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/alliances-against-poverty-dfids-experience-in-peru-2000-2005/) - Addressing the underlying causes of inequality and exclusion requires donors to engage with political processes. Alliances involving state and society must be strengthened and donors must play an active role in them. This report from the Department of International Development (DFID) reviews the application of rights-based approaches through the concept of active citizenship in a
- [Developing Poverty Reduction Strategies in Low-Income Countries Under Stress (LICUS): Final Report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/developing-poverty-reduction-strategies-in-low-income-countries-under-stress-licus-final-report/) - This study is a rapid assessment of the experience of Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) in LICUS to date, including a Synthesis Report and six case studies. It assesses the applicability of the PRS approach in the LICUS context. It concludes that PRS principles are applicable in LICUS, and should be progressively introduced as conditions allow.
- [Fighting Poverty to Build a Safer World: A Strategy for Security and Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fighting-poverty-to-build-a-safer-world-a-strategy-for-security-and-development/) - What is the link between security and development? What is the best way to achieve both? This strategy paper by the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) outlines how DFID, through its commitment to fighting poverty, can help tackle insecurity among the poor. It explains the complex connections between security and development and sets
- [Second-Generation Poverty Reduction Strategies: New Opportunities and Emerging Issues](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/second-generation-poverty-reduction-strategies-new-opportunities-and-emerging-issues/) - Since the move towards the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) approach five years ago, 40 countries have implemented a PRS. Some second-generation strategies are now set to emerge. But how can these second-generation strategies make a greater impact on poverty reduction and good governance? This paper, written for Development Policy Review, assesses the progress made to
- [Distribution and Poverty Impacts of Tax Structure Reform in Developing Countries: How Little We Know](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/distribution-and-poverty-impacts-of-tax-structure-reform-in-developing-countries-how-little-we-know/) - Tax reform has been promoted by the international financial institutions (IFIs) for two decades as an important component of more general economic policy reform in developing countries. How have tax reforms been implemented? Is it possible to assess the distributional impact of tax reforms on the poor? Compiled for Development Policy Review, this paper reviews
- [Progress Reviews and Performance Assessment in Poverty-reduction Strategies and Budget Support: A Survey of Current Thinking and Practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/progress-reviews-and-performance-assessment-in-poverty-reduction-strategies-and-budget-support-a-survey-of-current-thinking-and-practice/) - Five years after its adoption, the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) remains central to international policy thinking about development assistance to poor countries. What is the best way to ensure PRSPs are being effectively implemented and having the desired results? How are the results and risks associated with budget support being assessed? This paper, compiled
- [The Impact of Armed Violence on Poverty and Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-armed-violence-on-poverty-and-development/) - How do armed violence and small arms and light weapons (SALW) possession and usage impoverish individuals, groups, societies and states? This study by the Centre for International Cooperation and Security, Bradford Unversity, addresses this question to advance understanding and knowledge of this area and inform programme design and evaluation.The study synthesises the findings of 13
- [Linking Policies and Budgets: Implementing Medium Term Expenditure Frameworks in a PRSP Context](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/linking-policies-and-budgets-implementing-medium-term-expenditure-frameworks-in-a-prsp-context/) - Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers are often criticised for being de-linked from the availability of resources in the budget. Can Medium Term Expenditure Frameworks bridge this gap? This briefing paper from the Overseas Development Institute is based on 9 country case studies of implementing MTEFs in a PRSP context. It finds that in general, MTEF implementation
- [Practical Guidance to Implementing Rights Based Approaches, Human Rights Analyses for Poverty Reduction and Human Rights Benchmarks](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/practical-guidance-to-implementing-rights-based-approaches-human-rights-analyses-for-poverty-reduction-and-human-rights-benchmarks/) - To what extent are human rights being incorporated into development programmes? How can a human rights-based approach best be developed? This report, by the UK Government Department for International Development (DFID), brings together material collated from development organisations in four key areas: practical guidance on rights-based approaches, including case studies and checklists; analytical tools which
- [Partnerships for Poverty Reduction: Rethinking Conditionality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/partnerships-for-poverty-reduction-rethinking-conditionality/) - In recent years the UK has been moving away from traditional approaches to conditionality. This paper sets out the current UK government's position on effective aid partnerships. Produced jointly by the Department for International Development (DFID), HM Treasury and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, it is based on a broad range of international experience and
- [With the Support of Multitudes: Using Strategic Communication to Fight Poverty through PRSPs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/with-the-support-of-multitudes-using-strategic-communication-to-fight-poverty-through-prsps/) - How can the use of more strategic communication help developing countries reach the Millennium Development Goals? How can national ownership and participation in Poverty Reduction Strategies be created? This paper produced by the UK Department for International Development and The World Bank provides guidance on best practice for policymakers. It concludes that PRSs are not
- [Reducing Poverty by Tackling Social Exclusion: A DFID Policy Paper](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/reducing-poverty-by-tackling-social-exclusion-a-dfid-policy-paper/) - Who is socially excluded and how is social exclusion (SE) related to poverty, conflict and insecurity? How can governments, civil society and donors reduce SE? This policy paper from the UK Department for International Development (DFID) explores the causes, effects and solutions to SE worldwide. Governments, civil society and donors should tackle the challenges posed
- [Poverty Reduction During Democratic Transition: The Malawi Social Action Fund 1996-2001](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-during-democratic-transition-the-malawi-social-action-fund-1996-2001/) - In 1996 the Malawi Government launched the first Malawi Social Action Fund (MASAF I), designed to disburse $56 million on community sub-projects and public works. To what extent did it contribute to poverty reduction and institutional development? This report by the Institute of Development Studies (commissioned by the Government of Malawi and the World Bank
- [Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction:  Measurement and Policy Issues](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/economic-growth-and-poverty-reduction-measurement-and-policy-issues/) - What are the linkages between economic growth, inequality, and poverty reduction? How can pro-poor growth be defined and measured? This paper, by the OECD Development Centre, applies the analytical tools for pro-poor growth to non-income dimensions of poverty such as health, education and gender equity, using the example of Bolivia. It highlights differences in the
- [Win-win or Lose?  An Examination of the Use of Public Works as a Social Protection Instrument in Situations of Chronic Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/win-win-or-lose-an-examination-of-the-use-of-public-works-as-a-social-protection-instrument-in-situations-of-chronic-poverty/) - Are public works an appropriate policy choice to address chronic poverty (defined as poverty experienced over an extended duration)? This paper from the Public Works Research Project of SALDRU, at the School of Economics in the University of Cape Town, examines the role of public works as a social protection instrument (that aims to reduce
- [Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers: Children First!](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-strategy-papers-children-first/) - Poverty is the major obstacle in the realisation of children’s rights. This paper from Kindernothilfe looks at how far the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) processes in Ethiopia, Kenya and Zambia fulfil child rights demands. It concludes that there is a long way to go before the rights of children are respected and promoted in
- [Social Transfers and Chronic Poverty: Emerging Evidence and the Challenge Ahead](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-transfers-and-chronic-poverty-emerging-evidence-and-the-challenge-ahead/) - Can social transfers play a role in tackling extreme poverty? This paper from the UK Department for International Development uses evidence from existing schemes across the world to suggest that social transfers could have a direct impact on poverty and help pro poor growth. When integrated within a wider national social protection system, social transfers
- [Toward a Conflict-sensitive Poverty Reduction Strategy : Lessons from a Retrospective Analysis](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/toward-a-conflict-sensitive-poverty-reduction-strategy-lessons-from-a-retrospective-analysis/) - The PRSP has become the primary tool for articulating a vision for growth and poverty reduction in nearly 60 low-income countries. Some 15-20 of these countries are affected by conflict, and other conflict-affected countries are still to begin the process. In what ways do Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSPs) in conflict-affected countries take account of their
- [Disability Poverty and the Millennium Development Goals. Relevance, Challenges and Opportunities for DFID](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/disability-poverty-and-the-millennium-development-goals-relevance-challenges-and-opportunities-for-dfid/) - What progress has the UK Department for International Development (DFID) made in mainstreaming disability? What are the challenges and opportunities ahead? This final report from the Policy Project of the DFID Disability Knowledge and Research (KaR) Programme reviews progress on addressing disability issues during the last year and identifies barriers to and opportunities for taking
- [Economic Report on Africa 2005: Meeting the Challenges of Unemployment and Poverty in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/economic-report-on-africa-2005-meeting-the-challenges-of-unemployment-and-poverty-in-africa/) - Decent employment is the main escape route out of chronic poverty. Decent employment refers to both the quality of employment - rooted in productive and secure jobs that provide adequate income and reasonable work conditions - and the quantity of employment. The African Union’s 2004 Declaration on Employment and Poverty Alleviation acknowledges that widespread unemployment
- [Accountability Upside Down. Gender equality in a Partnership for Poverty Eradication](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/accountability-upside-down-gender-equality-in-a-partnership-for-poverty-eradication/) - To what extent do current poverty reduction efforts promote gender equality? How can policymakers more effectively implement gender equality policies? What opportunities and challenges does the increasing move from direct project support to general and sector budget support present for the promotion of gender equality? This joint paper from Eurostep and Social Watch looks at
- [Poverty, Pro-Poor Growth and Simulated Inequality Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-pro-poor-growth-and-simulated-inequality-reduction/) - What is the relative importance of growth promotion versus inequality reduction in terms of lowering poverty levels? What kinds of economic growth are most effective at reducing poverty? This paper from the United Nations Development Programme analyses economic models and real-world data to compare the effectiveness of growth-based and redistributive policies in combating poverty. It
- [Indigenous and Tribal Peoples: An Ethnic Audit of Selected Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/indigenous-and-tribal-peoples-an-ethnic-audit-of-selected-poverty-reduction-strategy-papers/) - How effectively have Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) addressed the needs of indigenous and tribal peoples (ITPs)? This paper from the International Labour Office surveys 14 PRSPs from countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America to evaluate the extent to which they address the varieties of economic, social and political exclusion faced by these communities.
- [MDG Oriented Sector and Poverty Reduction Strategies: Lessons from Experience in Health](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/mdg-oriented-sector-and-poverty-reduction-strategies-lessons-from-experience-in-health/) - How can the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for health best be achieved? How do national health goals compare to the MDGs? This study, by the World Bank, looks at how health MDGs are being taken forward in low-income countries and identifies ways in which government planning and budget processes, as well as the management and
- [Perpetuating Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: How African Political Elites Undermine Entrepreneurship and Economic Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/perpetuating-poverty-in-sub-saharan-africa-how-african-political-elites-undermine-entrepreneurship-and-economic-development/) - Most countries in sub-Saharan Africa have experienced declining growth and increasing poverty since independence. This can be attributed to Africa’s political elites, who have driven their economies backwards by misusing their countries’ economic surplus. This paper published by International Policy Press examines the consequences of the exploitation of the state by Africa’s political elites. It
- [Open on impact? Slow Progress in World Bank and IMF Poverty Analysis](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/open-on-impact-slow-progress-in-world-bank-and-imf-poverty-analysis/) - What is the impact of poverty and social impact analysis (PSIA) in developing countries? Has it strengthened national institutions and improved reform designs? This study by the European Network on Debt and Development (Eurodad) examines the effectiveness of PSIA undertaken by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) using case studies from Ghana,
- [Poverty Reduction: Are the Strategies Working?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-are-the-strategies-working/) - How effective are Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) in accommodating the voices of the poor and promoting accountability in the decision-making process? This report, published by World Vision, calls for greater accountability to the poor as a means of improving aid effectiveness. The engagement of poor people largely depends on how the PRS is located within
- [Poverty Monitoring Systems: An Analysis of Institutional Arrangements in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-monitoring-systems-an-analysis-of-institutional-arrangements-in-uganda/) - Monitoring activities can play an important role in promoting country ownership of poverty-reduction policies where they are closely related to a politically supported and maturing budget process. Focusing on Uganda, this paper from the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) is one of a series of country studies intended to inform the design and implementation of poverty
- [A Framework for Scaling Up Poverty Reduction with Illustrations from South Asia](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-framework-for-scaling-up-poverty-reduction-with-illustrations-from-south-asia/) - How can small-scale aid interventions be successfully scaled up? This paper from the World Bank develops a framework for thinking about the policy challenge of scaling up successful small scale governmental and non-governmental poverty reduction interventions. The framework sees scaling up as addressing different components of market failure, government failure and civil society failure. Despite
- [Fiscal Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/fiscal-decentralisation-and-poverty-reduction/) - How can fiscal decentralisation contribute towards reducing poverty and achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)? This primer from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) outlines the main principles of fiscal decentralisation and examines the links between fiscal decentralisation and poverty reduction. It argues that a well crafted set of intergovernmental fiscal relations are vital for
- [Policy Insights: Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/policy-insights-decentralisation-and-poverty-reduction/) - What are the key determinants of pro-poor decentralisation? This briefing note from the OECD's Development Centre discusses theoretical and actual links between decentralisation and poverty and highlights lessons for donors. The implementation of a coherent decentralisation strategy, along with indicators to monitor progress, is a promising tool to improve capacities and institutional quality at the
- [Human Rights and Poverty Reduction: The Role of Human Rights in Promoting Donor Accountability](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/human-rights-and-poverty-reduction-the-role-of-human-rights-in-promoting-donor-accountability/) - The aid industry is characterised by a serious deficit of accountability mechanisms, a lack of transparency in aid allocation, priority setting and performance assessment, and little information about action taken with staff concerning failed projects or wider negative impacts. To what extent may human rights be used to hold aid agencies to account in a
- [Beyond Buzzwords: 'Poverty Reduction', 'Participation' and 'Empowerment' in Development Policy](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beyond-buzzwords-poverty-reduction-participation-and-empowerment-in-development-policy/) - What do 'poverty reduction', 'participation' and 'empowerment' really mean? Has their use influenced mainstream development policy? This paper argues that the terms we use are never neutral. Different configurations of words frame and justify particular kinds of development interventions. Terms are given meaning as they are put to use in policies, and the policies influence
- [Politics and Poverty Reduction Strategies: Lessons from Latin American HIPCs](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/politics-and-poverty-reduction-strategies-lessons-from-latin-american-hipcs/) - How can donors engage with political actors and processes to strengthen the ownership of Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS)? This paper from the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) addresses the perception that PRS processes in Latin America and the Caribbean have so far not grappled effectively with politics or engaged successfully with political actors and institutions. Based
- [Eliminating World Poverty: Making Governance Work for the Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/eliminating-world-poverty-making-governance-work-for-the-poor/) - In 2005, rich and poor countries promised more and better aid. Whilst there has been progress, much remains to be done. This White Paper, by the Department for International Development, sets out how the UK government will work with others to deliver these promises. It outlines key commitments in relation to building states that work
- [Introduction: Meeting the Challenges to Growth and Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/introduction-meeting-the-challenges-to-growth-and-poverty-reduction/) - What demographic and socio-economic challenges face developing Asian societies? How can national governments and international agencies meet these challenges? This paper from the Development Policy Review surveys recent achievements in, and future prospects for, growth and poverty reduction in the Asian economies. It argues that difficulties presented by urbanisation, environmental degradation, social exclusion and inequality
- [Gearing Public Finance to Growth, Employment and Poverty Reduction in Moldova](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/gearing-public-finance-to-growth-employment-and-poverty-reduction-in-moldova/) - What fiscal policies should the Moldovan government pursue to promote growth, increase tax revenues and reduce inequality? This paper from the International Poverty Centre at the United Nations Development Programme analyses recent government policy on revenue-raising, debt and public expenditure, as well as its external borrowing record. It argues that Moldova’s tax-lowering policies will increase
- [The Poverty Reduction Strategy Approach Six Years On: An Examination of Principles and Practice in Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-poverty-reduction-strategy-approach-six-years-on-an-examination-of-principles-and-practice-in-uganda/) - In 1999 the World Bank and IMF introduced a Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) approach to development management. A 2005 review of this approach highlighted a need for renewed focus on core principles, including country ownership. This paper from Development Policy Review examines how such principles are put into practice in Uganda. While Uganda’s Poverty Eradication
- [Beyond the Numbers: Understanding the Institutions for Monitoring Poverty Reduction Strategies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beyond-the-numbers-understanding-the-institutions-for-monitoring-poverty-reduction-strategies/) - Monitoring systems are central to the effective design and implementation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS). Many existing PRS monitoring systems lack coordination and a coherent institutional framework linking monitoring and decision making. This World Bank report draws on 12 country studies to conclude that PRS monitoring systems should build on existing elements to begin
- [Promoting Pro-Poor Growth: Harmonising Ex-ante Poverty Impact Assessment](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/promoting-pro-poor-growth-harmonising-ex-ante-poverty-impact-assessment/) - How can donors and partner countries assess the intended and unintended consequences of donor interventions? This paper from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) explores ex ante Poverty impact assessment (ex ante PIA), which can assist in modifying the design of interventions to improve pro-poor impacts by identifying key areas for monitoring and
- [Integrated Multidisciplinary Community Development Approach for Poverty Reduction: A Sahakarya Approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/integrated-multidisciplinary-community-development-approach-for-poverty-reduction-a-sahakarya-approach/) - What impact does the integrated multidisciplinary community development (IMCD) approach have on poverty reduction? The 'Sahakarya' ('working together') project was implemented in conflict-affected Nepal to support rural economic activities. It integrates community health and income generating activities with the institutionalisation of community based organisations (CBOs). This Canadian Centre for International Studies and Cooperation (CECI) paper
- [Exploring Poverty Traps and Social Exclusion in South Africa using Qualitative and Quantitative Data](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/exploring-poverty-traps-and-social-exclusion-in-south-africa-using-qualitative-and-quantitative-data/) - Are poverty traps inevitable in a polarised society like South Africa? This Journal of Development Studies article investigates social capital and blockages to upward mobility using quantitative and qualitative data from the 1990s. Large numbers of South Africans are indeed trapped in poverty. Social relationships are most helpful for non-poor households. For the poor, social
- [Poverty, Relative Deprivation and Political Exclusion as Drivers of Violent Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-relative-deprivation-and-political-exclusion-as-drivers-of-violent-conflict-in-sub-saharan-africa/) - How can states in sub-Saharan Africa better provide for the needs of their populations and reduce inter-group violence? This article from the Journal on Science and World Affairs examines poverty and conflict escalation in Niger and Senegal. The partiality of some state policies regarding resource distribution promotes inter-group inequality and contributes to violence. The incumbent
- [Poverty Reduction in Fragile States: Do the PRSPs Contribute to Post-Conflict Recovery and Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-in-fragile-states-do-the-prsps-contribute-to-post-conflict-recovery-and-peacebuilding-in-sierra-leone/) - What contribution has the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) process made to post-conflict recovery and peacebuilding in Sierra Leone? This paper reviews the evidence from Sierra Leone to conclude that although conflict-related issues are rarely taken into account in the PRS framework, the process has and can make a positive impact on post-conflict recovery and peacebuilding
- [The Politics of What Works in Reducing Chronic Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-politics-of-what-works-in-reducing-chronic-poverty/) - What forms of politics are most likely to reduce chronic poverty in developing countries? This working paper, published by the Chronic Poverty Research Centre, uses comparative case-study analysis to argue that a shift is needed in donor policy. Greater attention should be paid to political instead of civil society, to the link between political discourse
- [Deepening Voice and Accountability to Fight Poverty: A Dialogue of Communication Implementers](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/deepening-voice-and-accountability-to-fight-poverty-a-dialogue-of-communication-implementers/) - How can voice and accountability be improved so as to make national poverty reduction strategies more effective and sustainable? How can communication processes help to amend technocratic approaches to development? This conference report suggests that better communication would strengthen the voice of the people and improve accountability in poverty reduction processes. Governments need to become
- [Moving Out of Poverty - Making Migration Work Better for Poor People](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/moving-out-of-poverty-making-migration-work-better-for-poor-people/) - How can policymakers and development agencies maximise the opportunities and minimise the risks associated with rising levels of national and international migration? This paper from the UK Department for International Development analyses the impact of voluntary economic migration on poverty reduction and development goals. Migration carries risks both for migrants and for the countries sending and
- [Tanzanian NGOs - Their Perceptions of Their Relationships with the Government of Tanzania and Donors, and Their Role in Poverty Reduction and Development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/tanzanian-ngos-their-perceptions-of-their-relationships-with-the-government-of-tanzania-and-donors-and-their-role-in-poverty-reduction-and-development/) - How are tripartite relationships among Non-Governmental Organisatoins (NGOs), donors and the State perceived in terms of poverty reduction efforts? This paper from Research on Poverty Alleviation (REPOA) presents the views of NGOs in Tanzania. Whilst closer planning and working relationships between the three sectors are emerging, an atmosphere of suspicion remains. NGOs expressed doubt as
- [Poverty Observatory in Mozambique: Final Report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-observatory-in-mozambique-final-report/) - What lessons can be learned about citizen participation and social accountability processes in the implementation and monitoring of Mozambique’s Poverty Reduction Strategy? This paper published by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and the World Bank reports on the work of the country’s Poverty Observatory (PO). It supports the view that strengthening effective and
- [China and the End of Poverty in Africa - Towards Mutual Benefit?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/china-and-the-end-of-poverty-in-africa-towards-mutual-benefit/) - How can African countries and the donor community make the most of the possibilities and address the challenges which China brings for poverty reduction and development? This report from Diakonia and Eurodad discusses China’s role as an emerging donor. It explores Chinese responses to concerns expressed by external stakeholders about increased Chinese cooperation with Africa,
- [The Impact of Growth and Redistribution on Poverty and Inequality in South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-growth-and-redistribution-on-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa/) - Do welfare transfers in South Africa target the poor and redistribute income? This paper from the International Poverty Centre evaluates the experience of the South African economy with respect to growth, poverty and inequality trends since the advent of democracy in 1994. There is little doubt that the significant growth spurt in welfare transfer expenditure
- [Poverty and Conflict: The Inequality Link](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-and-conflict-the-inequality-link/) - How do poverty and inequality causally interact with conflict? While there is a general view that poverty and inequality can lead to conflict, the nature of the links are less well appreciated. This paper draws out the links based on the recent economics literature and discusses their implications for policy. While inequality is a natural
- [Pro-Poor Growth: Explaining the Cross-Country Variation in the Growth Elasticity of Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/pro-poor-growth-explaining-the-cross-country-variation-in-the-growth-elasticity-of-poverty/) - What explains variations in the poverty impact of economic growth? This Brooks World Poverty Institute paper analyses cross-country variations in growth elasticity between 1990 and 2000. It finds that important determinants of the poverty-reducing impact of growth are: the level of initial inequality; credit available to the private sector; literacy; business regulations; and trade openness.
- ['Legislating Poverty' in Africa: What role have Parliamentarians been playing in PRSP Implementation and Policy?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/legislating-poverty-in-africa-what-role-have-parliamentarians-been-playing-in-prsp-implementation-and-policy/) - To ensure effective implementation of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), greater recognition has been given in recent years to parliamentarians’ role in oversight and monitoring. This document, produced by the Parliamentary Centre and funded by the World Bank Institute, assesses how effective parliamentary involvement in the PRSP process has been, and what impacts interventions have
- [Adverse Incorporation, Social Exclusion and Chronic Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/adverse-incorporation-social-exclusion-and-chronic-poverty/) - How do the processes of adverse incorporation and social exclusion (AISE) underpin chronic poverty? This paper from the Chronic Poverty Research Centre examines the politics and economy of poverty’s causal processes over time. Challenging AISE involves a shift from policy to politics and from specific anti-poverty interventions to longer-term development strategies. Particular attention should be
- [Power and the Durability of Poverty: A Critical Exploration of the Links between Culture, Marginality and Chronic Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/power-and-the-durability-of-poverty-a-critical-exploration-of-the-links-between-culture-marginality-and-chronic-poverty/) - What are the causes of chronic poverty and through what social mechanisms does it persist? How does a weak group become a constituency and a political agenda? This paper from the Chronic Poverty Research Centre draws on case studies from western India. Research on poverty has to be reconnected to knowledge about the way in
- [The Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty: An Overview](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-intergenerational-transmission-of-poverty-an-overview/) - What factors increase the likelihood that poverty is passed from one generation to another? This paper, jointly published by the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and Chronic Poverty Research Centre (CPRC), reviews the literature on intergenerational transmission (IGT) of poverty. It examines a number of factors related to individuals and the poverty of their households that
- [Agency, Opportunity Structure and Poverty Escapes](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/agency-opportunity-structure-and-poverty-escapes/) - Why are some people able to move out and stay out of poverty while others remain in chronic poverty? There is little consensus on the underlying causes of poverty and processes determining access to economic opportunity and mobility. This introductory chapter from the World Bank book Moving out of Poverty: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Mobility looks
- [Poverty and the Politics of Exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-and-the-politics-of-exclusion/) - How does politics affect individual and collective exits from poverty? This chapter from a World Bank publication examines the politics of exclusion and the political production or reproduction of poverty. It focuses on causal links among four elements: social exclusion, poverty, exits from poverty and overall processes that generate inequality among social categories. Social exclusion
- [The Impact of Conflict on the Intergenerational Transmission of Chronic Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-impact-of-conflict-on-the-intergenerational-transmission-of-chronic-poverty/) - What impact does conflict have on the intergenerational transmission of chronic poverty? This paper from the Chronic Poverty Research Centre reviews conflict and poverty literature, and finds that conflict is likely a contributory factor to the intergenerational transmission of chronic poverty. It cautions, however, that the causal link is difficult to demonstrate and requires further
- [Alternative Realities? Different Concepts of Poverty, their Empirical Consequences and Policy Implications](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/alternative-realities-different-concepts-of-poverty-their-empirical-consequences-and-policy-implications/) - What are the implications of alternative definitions of poverty? Do different approaches identify different people as poor? This concluding chapter from the book Defining Poverty in the Developing World considers the implications of four approaches to measuring poverty - monetary, capabilities, social exclusion and participatory methods - through a theoretical review and empirical research in
- [Adaptation to Climate Change in Poverty Reduction Strategies](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/adaptation-to-climate-change-in-poverty-reduction-strategies/) - How far is climate change adaptation integrated into the poverty reduction strategies of developing countries? This paper examines the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) of 19 countries and finds low incorporation of adaptation in PRSPs. Countries should develop regional and local climate change institutional frameworks to strengthen the
- [Climate Change Adaptation and Poverty Reduction: Key Interactions and Critical Measures](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/climate-change-adaptation-and-poverty-reduction-key-interactions-and-critical-measures/) - What are the links between poverty reduction and adaptation to climate change? How can these place-specific links be identified in any given context? Three key types of sustainable adaptation interventions target vulnerability-poverty links, reducing both poverty and vulnerability to climate change. These are activities that: 1) address climate risk, 2) strengthen adaptive capacity, and 3)
- [Making Poverty the Story: Time to Involve the Media in Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/making-poverty-the-story-time-to-involve-the-media-in-poverty-reduction/) - This report argues that all policy actors need to recognise and support the mass media's potentially crucial contribution to poverty reduction. In particular, high-quality public service and public interest journalism should be supported as public goods in their own right. It is crucial to promote media development in order to realise the media's scrutiny role.
- [International Labour Migration of Nepalese Women: The Impact of their Remittances on Poverty Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/international-labour-migration-of-nepalese-women-the-impact-of-their-remittances-on-poverty-reduction/) - What impact do remittances from women migrant workers have on poverty reduction in Nepal? This article finds that remittances play an important role in poverty reduction but that female migration can also involve significant human costs. It argues that the Nepali state and international development agencies should pay greater attention to the issue of women's
- [Good Governance, Aid Modalities and Poverty Reduction: From Better Theory to Better Practice](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/good-governance-aid-modalities-and-poverty-reduction-from-better-theory-to-better-practice/) - What are the challenges for donor agencies in delivering aid through recipient-owned modalities such as General Budget Support (GBS) and programme-based approaches? This report synthesises a two-year research programme undertaken for the Advisory Board for Irish Aid by the Center for Democratic Development (CDD) Ghana, the Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI) Norway, the Economic and Social
- [Developmental States, Effective States and Poverty Reduction: The Primacy of Politics](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/developmental-states-effective-states-and-poverty-reduction-the-primacy-of-politics/) - How can donors promote the emergence of states that facilitate poverty reduction? This paper from the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) highlights the importance of politics in state formation and poverty reduction. Political processes shape the effective and developmental states that nurture the institutions needed to deliver poverty reducing growth and social welfare
- [Why the Media Matters: the Relevance of the Media to Tackling Global Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/why-the-media-matters-the-relevance-of-the-media-to-tackling-global-poverty/) - How can the media address global poverty? This paper from the Global Forum for Media Development argues that the media has a critical role in poverty reduction, particularly by fostering country ownership of development strategies and the accountability of governments to their citizens. However, the media operates in a politically and economically hostile environment with
- [Building the Case for Pro-Poor Adaptation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/building-the-case-for-pro-poor-adaptation/) - Why must climate change adaptation be pro-poor? What are the links between adaptation and poverty and how can pro-poor adaptation inform climate-resilient poverty reduction at all scales? This article argues that adaptation to climate change will be inefficient and inequitable if it does not consider the multidimensional and differentiated nature of poverty and vulnerability. There
- [Entrenchment or Enhancement: Could Climate Change Adaptation Help Reduce Poverty?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/entrenchment-or-enhancement-could-climate-change-adaptation-help-reduce-poverty/) - How can adaptation efforts be tailored to the varied, specific needs of the chronically poor? With limited reference to the dynamic and multidimensional nature of poverty, the poorest communities are often considered the most vulnerable to climate change. This article unpacks this orthodoxy, highlighting the need for greater understanding of how different dimensions of poverty
- [The Four Pillars of Legal Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-four-pillars-of-legal-empowerment/) - Most of the world's poor live outside the ambit of the law and their poverty is both a cause and consequence of their lack of effective legal rights. This chapter argues that addressing the issue of legal empowerment is both smart politics and good economics. It presents a framework of legal empowerment based on 1)
- [Poverty Reduction Strategies During Post-Conflict Recovery in Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-strategies-during-post-conflict-recovery-in-africa/) - What is the role, relevance and effectiveness of PRSPs in supporting post-conflict recovery in Africa? This paper from the Economic Policy Research Centre in Uganda discusses challenges in developing PRSPs using case studies from Zambia, Malawi, Ghana, Burundi, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Mozambique, Angola and Uganda. It concludes that not all post-conflict African countries have successfully
- [The Role of Gender Inequalities in Explaining Income Growth, Poverty and Inequality: Evidences from Latin American Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-of-gender-inequalities-in-explaining-income-growth-poverty-and-inequality-evidences-from-latin-american-countries/) - What role can gender play in understanding income growth, poverty and inequality? This working paper, published by the International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth, argues that gender equality is critical in any attempt to reduce poverty. In particular, it finds that increasing women’s access to the labour market correlates very positively with greater economic equality
- [Effective poverty reduction strategies in fragile and conflict-affected countries: lessons and suggestions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/effective-poverty-reduction-strategies-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-countries-lessons-and-suggestions/) - How can Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSs) in fragile and conflict-affected countries be made effective? How can the World Bank and other international bodies assist this process? This World Bank working paper argues that well-designed PRSs offer the best hope for many countries to move from poverty and conflict to development and stability. Outsiders can promote
- [Social Protection and the Informal Economy: Linkages and Good Practices for Poverty Reduction and Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-protection-and-the-informal-economy-linkages-and-good-practices-for-poverty-reduction-and-empowerment/) - How can social protection in developing countries empower people to create employment-related ways out of poverty? This paper examines empowerment in the context of social protection for informal workers. It argues that social protection can help to improve the health and well-being of informal sector workers, especially poorer women, and build their capacity to organise
- [Does Decentralisation Enhance Service Delivery and Poverty Reduction?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/does-decentralisation-enhance-service-delivery-and-poverty-reduction/) - This chapter introduces an examination of the recent in the literature on fiscal federalism and empirical assessments of decentralisation processes in Bolivia, Uganda, Poland and Spain. It argues that decentralised approaches to development are least likely to succeed where they are most needed – where levels of inequality are high. Particular attention needs to be
- [Poverty Reduction and Social Movements: A Framework with Cases](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-and-social-movements-a-framework-with-cases/) - What roles do social movements play in poverty reduction? This study explores the connections between poverty and social movements, particularly relating to production and to collective consumption (for example, housing, services, water). It argues that social movements are integral to livelihoods and also to state formation, and can therefore play a central role in poverty
- [Beyond Institutions: Institutions and Organisations in the Politics and Economics of Poverty Reduction – a Thematic Synthesis of Research Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/beyond-institutions-institutions-and-organisations-in-the-politics-and-economics-of-poverty-reduction-a-thematic-synthesis-of-research-evidence/) - What policy implications emerged from the work of the Research Programme Consortium on Improving Institutions for Pro-Poor Growth between 2005 and 2010? This paper provides an overview, highlighting that while institutions matter for development, organisations matter for institutional formation and efficacy. The interaction of individuals, organisations and institutions is at the heart of the politics
- [Stemming Girls' Chronic Poverty: Catalysing Development Change by Building Just Social Institutions](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/stemming-girls-chronic-poverty-catalysing-development-change-by-building-just-social-institutions/) - Do social institutions result in gender differences in the incidence of poverty? This paper finds that discriminatory family codes, son bias, limited resource entitlements, physical insecurity and restricted civil liberties play a role in chronic poverty, specifically that of young women. It is therefore important to: eliminate gender discrimination through legal provisions; support girls' participation
- [Social Protection and Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/social-protection-and-poverty/) - What is the potential for social protection programmes to address poverty and vulnerability in developing countries? This report provides an overview of social protection and an assessment of its impact in Latin America, South and East Asia, and Sub Saharan Africa. Countries with stronger social protection show lower levels of poverty and vulnerability and are
- [Policy Responses to the Spatial Dimensions of Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/policy-responses-to-the-spatial-dimensions-of-poverty/) - How should public policy address the spatial dimensions of poverty? This paper reviews policy documents and eight country cases to identify how the spatial dimensions of poverty are reflected in development policies. Lessons include the need to: 1) balance universalism and targeting; 2) manage the form and processes of integration in the economy; 3) use
- [The Politics of Poverty: Elites, Citizens and States: Findings from ten years of DFID-funded research on Governance and Fragile States 2001-2010](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-politics-of-poverty-elites-citizens-and-states-findings-from-ten-years-of-dfid-funded-research-on-governance-and-fragile-states-2001-2010/) - During the 1990s donors came to realise that development required better ‘governance’, and DFID recognised early on the need to work with the research community to identify ways of improving governance for better development outcomes. The Centre for Future States and the Citizenship, Accountability and Participation Programmes (Institute of Development Studies, Sussex); the Crisis States
- [Poverty Reduction with Strategic Communication: Moving from Awareness Raising to Sustained Citizen Participation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-reduction-with-strategic-communication-moving-from-awareness-raising-to-sustained-citizen-participation/) - What is the role of communication in Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) processes? This study looks at communication in PRS processes in Ghana, Tanzania, Moldova and Nepal, and in Latin America and the Caribbean. It also explores how the use of strategic communication is being integrated into national development planning and implementation. The rise of new
- [Rescuing Exclusion from the Poverty Debate: Group Disparities and Social Transformation in India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/rescuing-exclusion-from-the-poverty-debate-group-disparities-and-social-transformation-in-india/) - This paper examines how India's Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes categories are applied in poverty analysis and social policy, including in India's targeted poverty programmes and BPL (Below Poverty Line) Census. It finds that, while Indian poverty debates highlight the severe inequalities between social groups, they pay insufficient attention to the nature of exclusion. In
- [Empowering the Poor through Human Rights Litigation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/empowering-the-poor-through-human-rights-litigation/) - Following consultation with more than 200 NGOs worldwide, this manual aims to define the content of economic, social and cultural (ESC) rights and to empower the actions of NGOs working to tackle poverty. It elaborates standards for poverty eradication extracted from comparative case law by highlighting the interpretation techniques used by judges throughout a series
- [A new strategic vision for girls and women: stopping poverty before it starts](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-new-strategic-vision-for-girls-and-women-stopping-poverty-before-it-starts/) - This paper outlines DFID’s new strategic vision on alleviating poverty through empowering women and girls to fulfil their potential. Building on the commitments established by DFID’s Business Plan, it sets out four pillars for greater and more effective action. Its main aim is to significantly improve and sustainably transform the lives of women and girls.
- [What Matters Most? Evidence from 84 Participatory Studies with Those Living with Extreme Poverty and Marginalisation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-matters-most-evidence-from-84-participatory-studies-with-those-living-with-extreme-poverty-and-marginalisation/) - This Participate report draws on the experiences and views of people living in extreme poverty and marginalisation in 107 countries. It highlights four key messages that consistently emerge in different contexts: 1) the very poorest are less able to access infrastructure, services, support and opportunities; 2) development that is sustainable requires meaningful participation that leads
- [What is the Evidence on the Impact of Employment Creation on Stability and Poverty Reduction in Fragile States: A Systematic Review](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/what-is-the-evidence-on-the-impact-of-employment-creation-on-stability-and-poverty-reduction-in-fragile-states-a-systematic-review/) - This systematic review found a significant research gap in terms of studies providing empirical evidence on the impacts of employment creation interventions on poverty and stability in fragile states. It identified only seven studies meeting the inclusion criteria. These all concerned programmes that directly created short-term/emergency employment, six examining the impact on poverty, and one
- [Working out of chronic poverty: a policy guide](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/working-out-of-chronic-poverty-a-policy-guide/) - Chronically poor people are poor over extended periods of time, often over a lifetime and may pass their poverty onto their children. Frequently lacking material assets including land, livestock or the equipment for a microbusiness, the main asset of chronically poor people is their labour. The majority of chronically poor people are economically active but
- [Poverty and Support for Militant Politics: Evidence from Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-and-support-for-militant-politics-evidence-from-pakistan/) - Policy debates on strategies to end extremist violence frequently cite poverty as a root cause of support for the perpetrating groups. There is little evidence to support this contention, particularly in the Pakistani case. Pakistan’s urban poor are more exposed to the negative externalities of militant violence and may in fact be less supportive of
- [Migrants' Remittances, Poverty and Social Protection in the South Pacific: Fiji and Tonga](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/migrants-remittances-poverty-and-social-protection-in-the-south-pacific-fiji-and-tonga/) - Small island states are increasingly characterised by the growing role of international migration and remittances as components of national and household incomes. Recent household-level survey data on migration and remittances in two Pacific island states, Fiji and Tonga, demonstrate that where formal social protection systems are largely absent, migration and remittances can perform a similar
- [The geography of poverty, disasters and climate extremes in 2030](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-geography-of-poverty-disasters-and-climate-extremes-in-2030/) - Climate change and exposure to ‘natural’ disasters threaten to derail international efforts to eradicate poverty by 2030. As temperatures warm, many of the world’s poorest and most vulnerable citizens will face the growing risks linked to more intense or lengthy droughts, extreme rainfall and flooding and severe heat waves – risks that threaten lives and
- [A new global partnership: Eradicate poverty and transform economies through sustainable development](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/a-new-global-partnership-eradicate-poverty-and-transform-economies-through-sustainable-development/) - This report is the product of a panel of 27 eminent persons, which had the aim of shaping the post-2015 agenda. The panel concluded that given the remarkable success of the MDGs, it would be a mistake to simply tear up the MDGs and start from scratch. As world leaders agreed at Rio in 2012,
- [Where do the World's Multidimensionally Poor People Live?](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/where-do-the-worlds-multidimensionally-poor-people-live/) - This paper asks where do the world’s multidimensionally poor people live? The paper considers how the global distribution of multidimensional poverty differs from the global distribution of income poverty and assesses the sensitivity of findings to widely used (although somewhat arbitrary) country classifications. Surprisingly perhaps, only a quarter of multidimensionally poor people and just one-third
- [Development Co-operation Report 2013: Ending Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/development-co-operation-report-2013-ending-poverty/) - The world has probably already met the MDG target of halving the share of the population living in extreme poverty (USD 1.25 per day). Yet progress towards the MDGs across countries, localities, population groups and gender has been uneven, reflecting a fundamental weakness in current approaches.This report shows that ending poverty does not only mean
- [Information lives of the poor: Fighting poverty with technology](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/information-lives-of-the-poor-fighting-poverty-with-technology/) - This book explores the impacts of technological change on the poor. Drawing on household surveys undertaken by research networks active in 38 developing countries, it helps to fill knowledge gaps about how the poor use information and communication technologies (ICTs): How have they benefited from mobile devices, computers, and the Internet? What insights can research
- [Sexuality and Poverty Synthesis Report](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/sexuality-and-poverty-synthesis-report/) - This report synthesises learning from audits which were undertaken in Philippines, China, Brazil, India and South Africa. It is part of a larger project that focuses on understanding the links between sexuality, gender plurality and poverty with the aim of improving socioeconomic policy and programming to support people marginalised because of their sexuality. The project
- [Measuring and Decomposing Inequality among the Multidimensionally Poor Using Ordinal Data: A Counting Approach](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/measuring-and-decomposing-inequality-among-the-multidimensionally-poor-using-ordinal-data-a-counting-approach/) - Poverty has many dimensions, which, in practice, are often binary or ordinal in nature. A number of multidimensional measures of poverty have recently been proposed that respect this ordinal nature. These measures agree that the consideration of inequality across the poor is important, which is typically captured by adjusting the poverty measure to be sensitive
- [Poverty and Crime: Evidence from Rainfall and Trade Shocks in India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-and-crime-evidence-from-rainfall-and-trade-shocks-in-india/) - This paper examines the mechanisms underlying the observed relationship between rainfall and crime. Using four decades of district level data from India, the study establishes a robust effect of rainfall shocks on different types of crime, with the strongest effects on violent crimes and property crimes. It then examines to what extent poverty is the
- [ICT Pathways to Poverty Reduction: Empirical evidence from East and Southern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/ict-pathways-to-poverty-reduction-empirical-evidence-from-east-and-southern-africa/) - Do ICTs result in poverty reduction? This book looks at the links between ICTs and poverty reduction. The links are considered at three main levels: 1) access to ICTs and the relationship of such access to poverty; 2) impact of ICTs on poverty reduction; and 3) use of ICTs as potential pathways to poverty reduction.
- [Poverty and violations of children’s right to protection in low- and middle-income countries: A review of the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/poverty-and-violations-of-childrens-right-to-protection-in-low-and-middle-income-countries-a-review-of-the-evidence/) - Why do up to 1.5 billion children suffer physical violence every year? Why do up to 2251 million children suffer sexual violence every year? Why are 14.2 million girls every year married off to start adult lives in adolescence or before? Why are considerable numbers of young children left alone for long hours without competent
- [Eliminating extreme poverty in Africa:  Trends, policies and the role of international organizations](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/eliminating-extreme-poverty-in-africa-trends-policies-and-the-role-of-international-organizations/) - This paper focuses on: (i) poverty paths in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) under different assumptions on key macroeconomic variables, that is (consumption) growth, population growth and income distribution; and (ii) national, regional and global policies that can be adopted to improve upon poverty outcomes. It explores how policies of global institutions such as the G20 can
- [Strategies for Achieving the International Development Targets: Addressing the Water Crisis - Healthier and More Productive Lives for Poor People](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/strategies-for-achieving-the-international-development-targets-addressing-the-water-crisis-healthier-and-more-productive-lives-for-poor-people/) - Fresh water is a precious resource. It is vital for sustaining life yet is increasingly scarce. The problem is particularly acute in developing countries with high levels of population growth and variable rainfall. How can it be guaranteed that there is a fair level of allocation? How can sustainability be increased? At present, the poor
- [Approaches to Overcoming Regional Water Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/approaches-to-overcoming-regional-water-poverty/) - Irrigated agriculture is the greatest consumer and waster of water resources and, whilst globally there are sufficient water resources to supply a growing population, regionally these are distributed highly unevenly. This briefing paper from the German Development Institute highlights the reasons for increasing regional water poverty and outlines areas where situations can either be mitigated
- [Sector Organization, Governance, and the Inefficiency of African Water Utilities](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/sector-organization-governance-and-the-inefficiency-of-african-water-utilities/) - Africa faces increasingly critical resource constraints in its efforts to extend water services of acceptable quality to the vast majority of its people. The inefficiency of water utilities is often identified as one of the major factors in explaining the slow progress and the many setbacks in improving access to water and water distribution. Yet,
- [New Designs for Water and Sanitation Transactions: Making Private Sector Participation Work For the Poor](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/new-designs-for-water-and-sanitation-transactions-making-private-sector-participation-work-for-the-poor/) - Sanitation is a neglected concern when compared to the water sector. This is an attempt to redress the balance. Can private sector involvement benefit the poor? How can the capacity of water and sanitation professionals to understand the potential of the private sector be built up? How can economic advisors understand the reality facing poor
- [Water for Life: The Impact of the Privatization of Water Services on Child Mortality](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/water-for-life-the-impact-of-the-privatization-of-water-services-on-child-mortality/) - Reducing child mortality by two-thirds and halving the number of households that do not have access to safe water are International Development Targets. However, there is little consensus on how to achieve these goals. Privatisation of water provision is one increasingly popular policy to do so. But are efficiency gains from privatisation translated into improved
- [Effective Water and Sanitation Policy Reform Implementation: Need for Systemic Approach and Stakeholder Participation](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/effective-water-and-sanitation-policy-reform-implementation-need-for-systemic-approach-and-stakeholder-participation/) - What are the impediments to successful water supply and sanitation (WSS) reform? What improvements can be made to future policy development and the institutional framework? This paper from the journal ‘Water Policy’ describes past experiences of international WSS policies and their shortcomings, and outlines the requirements for successful water policies and institutional reform. It argues
- [Setting the Stage: The Process of Preparing for Pro-poor Water Sector Reforms in Kathmandu](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/setting-the-stage-the-process-of-preparing-for-pro-poor-water-sector-reforms-in-kathmandu/) - Does involving the private sector in water supply mean that poor people will be overlooked? Does the private sector have the capacity or interest to serve poor people? This field note, from the Water and Sanitation Programme, describes how poor people were involved in the run up to privatisation of water and sanitation provision in
- [Problems of Publicness and Access to Rights: Perspectives from the Water Domain](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/problems-of-publicness-and-access-to-rights-perspectives-from-the-water-domain/) - Is water a global public good? From climate change to financial stability and HIV/AIDS control, a growing number of issues have been examined from the viewpoint of global public goods. Water is a key area for social and public policy but does this mean it can be looked at in the same way? This paper
- [Contracting Out Water and Sanitation Services - Vol. 2. Case Studies and Analyses of Service and Management Contracts in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/contracting-out-water-and-sanitation-services-vol-2-case-studies-and-analyses-of-service-and-management-contracts-in-developing-countries/) - How can contracting out the delivery of water and sanitation service provision be further enhanced in developing countries? Where and how is contracting out being undertaken in the water sector and by whom? Volume Two of this paper, a joint Water, Environment and Development Centre and Institute of Water and Environment publication, looks at case
- [Contracting Out Water and Sanitation Services - Vol. 1. Guidance Notes for Service and Management Contracts in Developing Countries](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/contracting-out-water-and-sanitation-services-vol-1-guidance-notes-for-service-and-management-contracts-in-developing-countries/) - How can contracting out the delivery of water and sanitation service provision be further enhanced in developing countries? Is contracting out delivering benefits through improved efficiency and effectiveness? This paper, a joint Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC) and Institute of Water and Environment publication provides an overview of the sector and the role of
- [Decentralisation and Supply Efficiency: The Case of Rural Water Supply in Central India](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/decentralisation-and-supply-efficiency-the-case-of-rural-water-supply-in-central-india/) - Decentralisation is widely regarded as important for improving public services, and developing countries are under growing pressure to implement it. But is decentralisation bringing the expected benefits? This article, published in the Journal of Development Studies, analyses rural water supply in two Indian states, and finds that centralised utilities are in fact more efficient.Common arguments
- [Meeting the Financing Challenge for Water Supply and Sanitation: Incentives to Promote Reforms, Leverage Resources and Improve Targeting](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/meeting-the-financing-challenge-for-water-supply-and-sanitation-incentives-to-promote-reforms-leverage-resources-and-improve-targeting/) - Over 1 billion people lack access to water and sanitation. Mobilising additional finances to improve access is not the only challenge for the water and sanitation (WSS) sector. Financing mechanisms also need to address issues like targeting, institutional capacity and the efficient use of public resources. This paper by the Water and Sanitation Programme reviews
- [The Politics of Decentralisation and Donor Funding in South Africa's Rural Water Sector](https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-politics-of-decentralisation-and-donor-funding-in-south-africas-rural-water-sector/) - How have donors affected the implementation of decentralisation policies in South Africa? What impact, if any, have they had on the form of decentralisation implemented? This article from the Journal of Southern African Studies examines how donors have supported decentralisation in the rural water sector in South Africa. Differentiating between community-oriented and state-centric forms of

## Topic Guide

- [Civil service reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/) - Improving a country's civil service can further development goals. Reforming the civil service is important in improving governance, service delivery, economic policy and public financial management. What do we know about what has – or hasn't – worked in civil service reform, and where? What lessons emerge from the literature?
- [Social protection](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/) - Social protection is commonly understood as ‘all public and private initiatives that provide income or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihood risks and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalised; with the overall objective of reducing the economic and social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable and marginalised groups’ (Devereux &
- [State-business relations](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/) - State-business relations in low income countries are seen as a key determinant of inclusive growth and of structural transformation – shifts in economic structure to more productive activities and sectors. Effective state-business relations can boost economic growth by increasing the rate and the productivity of investment. State-business relations can take the form of formal, regular
- [Service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/) - Equitable access to essential public services is vital for human development, inclusive growth, and tackling persistent inequality. This topic guide provides an overview of the best available evidence on inclusive service delivery. It includes lessons from cases where aid has been effective at addressing weak front-line incentives, where services have been delivered in very difficult
- [Political economy analysis](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/) - Political economy analysis (PEA) aims to situate development interventions within an understanding of the prevailing political and economic processes in society – specifically, the incentives, relationships, and distribution and contestation of power between different groups and individuals. Such an analysis can support more politically feasible and therefore more effective development strategies by setting realistic expectations
- [Measuring results](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/measuring-results/) - How can the impact of governance and social development programmes be assessed with a view to improving their efficiency and effectiveness? What particular challenges are involved in monitoring and evaluating development interventions, and how can these be addressed? How can the ‘value for money’ of a particular intervention be determined? Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is
- [Safety, security and justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/) - Safety, security and justice are priorities for poor people and are associated with development outcomes. What do we know about what has – or hasn't – worked in safety, security and justice programming, and where? This updated Topic Guide for policymakers and practitioners synthesises the evidence, challenges and approaches that emerge from the literature.
- [Disaster resilience](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/) - The impacts of disasters on development, poverty and vulnerability have led to calls for improving disaster resilience – the capacity to cope with and adapt to shocks and stresses associated with natural hazards. What do we know about what can enable or constrain disaster resilience? This Topic Guide for policymakers and practitioners synthesises the evidence,
- [Political systems](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/) - Political systems are the formal and informal political processes by which decisions are made concerning the use, production and distribution of resources in any given society. Formal political institutions can determine the process for electing leaders; the roles and responsibilities of the executive and legislature; the organisation of political representation (through political parties); and the
- [State-society relations and citizenship](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/) - State-society relations, citizenship and socio-political cohesion are areas of great importance to statebuilding and peacebuilding and are crucial to an integrated approach. State-society relations are defined by DFID as ‘interactions between state institutions and societal groups to negotiate how public authority is exercised and how it can be influenced by people. They are focused on
- [Key references: Inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/trends-and-future-projections-for-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/key-references-inequality/) - Deaton, A. (2013). The great escape: Health, wealth and the origins of inequality. Princeton University Press. Why is the world hugely unequal despite the progress made? And what can be done about it? People are wealthier and healthier, and live longer lives. However, there are large inequalities between people and between countries. This book examines
- [Agriculture and food security](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/sector-impacts-and-interventions/agriculture-and-food-security/) - How will climate change affect agriculture and food security? Climate change is already negatively affecting agriculture and food production ‒ particularly on the livelihoods and welfare of rural communities and those dependent on subsistence agriculture (Foresight, 2011; FAO, 2013; 2016). Future impacts of climate change on agriculture and food production are likely to be severe.
- [Nutrition](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/nutrition/) - Social protection has the potential to protect or improve nutritional status in a number of ways. Improved economic status can enable households to access more nutritious diets, health care, and education, and to make improvements in water, sanitation and hygiene. All of these can help people remain well-nourished and to grow and develop properly. However,
- [Health](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/health/) - Social protection programmes can aim to improve health directly, for example by conditioning programmes on attendance at health services, or indirectly, for example through supplemented income and therefore consumption (Barrientos & Niño-Zarazúa, 2011). Key social protection interventions that have health impacts are cash transfers and social health insurance. More evidence is available on cash transfers,
- [Types of social protection](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/types-of-social-protection/) - Social protection includes: Social assistance – non-contributory transfers in cash, vouchers, or in-kind (including school feeding) to individuals or households in need (White, 2016: 1); public works programmes; fee waivers (for basic health and education services); and subsidies (e.g. for food, fuel). Social insurance – ‘contributory schemes providing compensatory support in the event of contingencies
- [Selected development partner positions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/what-is-social-protection/selected-development-partner-positions/) - Development partners – bilateral donors and multilateral agencies, including United Nations agencies and multilateral financial institutions – engage in social protection in different ways, applying different emphases that reflect their individual mandate (Devereux & Roelen, 2016: 1). For instance, ‘the World Bank focuses on social protection as a means of reducing poverty and enhancing pro-poor
- [Analytical concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/what-is-social-protection/analytical-concepts/) - There are several different conceptual approaches for framing social protection objectives. These have developed over time and have been taken up and promoted by different countries and international organisations. Each conceptualises potential impacts in different ways, including a focus on transformation, human capital formation, reduction of vulnerability, and securing human rights. Approaches often combine a
- [Humanitarian–social protection linkages](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/humanitarian-social-protection-linkages/) - Globally, natural, economic and political disasters and crises are increasing – in ‘frequency, size and duration’ (O’Brien et al., 2018: ii). Emerging experience has shown social protection systems and approaches have considerable potential to ‘bridge the humanitarian–development divide’ (EC, 2019: 11). While there are promising experiences, as a relatively new topic, there is limited practice
- [People with disabilities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/vulnerable-groups-specific-needs-and-challenges/people-with-disabilities/) - People with disabilities comprise 15% of the world’s population, with the majority living in low- and middle-income countries (ILO, IDA et al., 2019: 1). Social protection plays a critical role for people with disabilities, as they ‘face barriers to accessing employment, education, health care and disability-related services, and to earning enough income to cover both
- [Women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/vulnerable-groups-specific-needs-and-challenges/women-and-girls/) - Women often need social protection as they are disproportionately vulnerable due to lack of capital, high wage differentials and gendered work norms, bearing the responsibility for childcare, and exclusion from basic services. Women’s poverty increases during reproductive years when they have children and take up socially assigned care and domestic responsibilities (World Bank, 2018a: 6).
- [Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/empowerment/) - There is a major debate about whether and how social protection can empower poor, vulnerable, or socially excluded people, but the evidence base is slim and findings mixed. For example, a cross-country evaluation of graduation programmes’ impact on empowerment found the effects to be mostly inconclusive (Banerjee et al., 2015). Meanwhile, a mixed methods evaluation
- [Education](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/education/) - Many social transfers seek to improve children’s schooling, as an investment in human capital and to break the intergenerational transmission of poverty (Barrientos & Niño-Zarazúa, 2011). Impacts of social protection on schooling have included, at both primary and secondary levels, increased enrolment and attendance, better grade progression, and decreased drop-out (ibid.). A 2013 systematic review
- [Urban contexts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/urban-contexts/) - As the global urban population increases and poverty urbanises, it becomes increasingly important to understand how to make social protection work in urban settings. Most social assistance programmes in low- and middle-income countries have hitherto been conceived for rural areas. The scope and focus of interventions can change quite remarkably depending on whether poverty is
- [Climate resilience](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/climate-resilience/) - Social protection, climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR) all share the same motivating principle of seeking to mitigate risks, reduce vulnerability and build resilience to livelihood shocks (Vincent & Cull, 2012). This overlap lends itself to integrated policies and programmes which address both social and environmental factors, with a long-term, preventative approach.
- [Conditionality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/conditionality/) - Conditionality (also called conditions and co-responsibilities) require beneficiaries to undertake certain actions, such as ensuring that their children are immunised or attending school, or taking part in parenting classes, in return for receiving their transfers (World Bank, 2018b: 7). The aim is ‘to reduce both short-term food insecurity and the long-term intergenerational transmission of poverty
- [Older people](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/vulnerable-groups-specific-needs-and-challenges/older-people/) - Challenges faced by older people include: lack of access to regular income, work and health care; declining physical and mental capacities; and dependency within the household (Sepulveda, 2010). Without income or work, older people tend to depend on others for their survival. They also usually have greater need for health-care services and for domestic help.
- [Employment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/employment/) - Social protection impacts on employment through various channels. Figure 6. provides a summary of supply- and demand-side labour effects. Figure 6. Social protection impacts on labour demand and supply Note: Public Employment Programmes (PEPs) are ‘programmes creating state sponsored employment which is not market based (known as Public Works Programmes, Workfare, Welfare to Work, Cash
- [Economic growth](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/economic-growth/) - Social protection contributes to inclusive economic growth in direct and indirect ways, at different levels (see Table 4). Of particular importance and where the evidence is strongest are individual- and household-level growth impacts as this promotes inclusive growth (Mathers & Slater, 2014: 3). There is some evidence of local economic effects, and while macro growth
- [Digital social protection](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/digital-social-protection/) - Digital technologies are involved in different aspects of social protection delivery, the main ones being information systems, financial services, and grievance/accountability mechanisms. Digital information systems Much recent attention has been on digital management information systems (MIS) for social protection, defined as ‘online platforms through which citizens can interact with welfare bureaucracies; automated systems which collect
- [Universal basic income](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/universal-basic-income/) - There are different definitions of universal basic income (UBI), reflected in the different types of experiments in UBI that are taking place. Two common characteristics of a UBI are ‘the aim of reaching a vast portion of individuals/households in society… in an “unconditional” way (or under a very broad conditionality)’ (Francese & Prady, 2018: 6). There
- [Graduation and cash plus](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/graduation-and-cash-plus/) - Graduation and cash plus interventions represent two relatively new types of programming that have seen rapid expansion in the last five to 10 years. Both types are based on the understanding that cash (and social protection) alone is generally not sufficient to promote people out of poverty and improve their lives in all its forms.
- [Public works programmes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/public-works-programmes/) - Public works programming refers to the provision of state-sponsored employment for the working age poor who are unable to support themselves due to under-productivity, seasonality of rural and urban livelihoods, or the inadequacy of market-based employment opportunities. It also aims to help vulnerable people and households cope with economic, environmental, or humanitarian shocks. Public works
- [Targeting](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/targeting/) - Targeting refers to any mechanism to identify eligible individuals, households and groups, for the purposes of transferring resources or preferential access to social services (Devereux et al., 2015: 7). ‘Popular targeting mechanisms include means testing, proxy means tests, categorical, geographic, community-based, and self-selection’ (ibid.: 3). The foremost rationale for targeting ‘is to direct programmes to
- [Political economy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/political-economy/) - There is growing recognition that institutions, politics and ideologies shape national social protection agendas, policies and appetite for resource allocation (Lavers & Hickey, 2015; Murshed et al., 2017; Seekings, 2017). Social protection has several areas of political debate and ideological contestation. Targeting is a common debate; for example, the means-tested cash transfer for children in
- [Financing, affordability and fiscal space](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/financing-affordability-and-fiscal-space/) - Issues of financing social protection, costs of individual programmes and systems, and the interface of social protection with taxation systems are widely debated. The social protection floors approach to building integrated social protection systems over time highlights the importance of increasing fiscal space, to create secure and sustainable financing over the long term (Harris, 2013).
- [Coverage, spend and systems](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/coverage-spend-and-systems/) - Coverage and spend The last 20 years have seen a huge increase in social protection programmes, both in the number of programmes and number of countries with programmes (Gentilini et al., 2014). Much of this expansion is accounted for by social assistance and particularly cash transfer programmes (Bastagli et al., 2016: 5; de Groot et
- [Definitions and objectives](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/what-is-social-protection/definitions-and-objectives/) - Definitions Social protection is concerned with protecting and helping those who are poor, vulnerable, marginalised or dealing with risks. The risks can be idiosyncratic, affecting individuals or households, and can be associated with life cycle stages. Or they can be covariate (large-scale), affecting communities or regions due to climate, conflict or other stresses and shocks.
- [Children](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/vulnerable-groups-specific-needs-and-challenges/children/) - Children are more vulnerable to malnutrition, disease and abuse than adults, and are overrepresented among the poor (UNICEF & World Bank, 2016). Three elements of child vulnerability are: (1) biological and physical needs; (2) strategic needs (children’s limited levels of autonomy and dependence on adults); and (3) institutional invisibility and lack of voice in policy
- [Design and implementation guidance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/design-and-implementation-guidance/) - This section provides links to key manuals, guidance and other practical resources. General guidance and manuals Barrett, S., & Kidd, S. (2015). The design and management of cash transfer programmes: An overview. Frankfurt am Main: KFW Development Bank. European Commission. (2015). Supporting social protection systems (Tools and Methods Series, Concept Paper 4). Brussels: European Commission.
- [Vulnerable groups: specific needs and challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/vulnerable-groups-specific-needs-and-challenges/) - Sections: Children Women and girls Older people People with disabilities
- [Poverty, inequality and vulnerability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/poverty-inequality-and-vulnerability/) - The primary aim for most social protection programmes is to reduce poverty and vulnerability. As detailed in What is social protection? Analytical concepts, different stakeholders have different conceptual approaches for how different social protection interventions achieve this. There is strong evidence of the positive effects of social transfers (in particular, cash transfers) on poverty, and
- [What is social protection?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/what-is-social-protection/) - Sections: Definitions and objectives Analytical concepts Selected government partner positions
- [Policy objectives and evidence of impacts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/) - Sections: Introduction Poverty, inequality and vulnerability Education Health Nutrition Empowerment Social exclusion Economic growth Employment
- [Social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/social-exclusion-2/) - Social protection from an equity perspective – as promoted in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development – has the potential to address simultaneously many drivers of exclusion and deprivation (UNDP, 2016: 9). Several studies have set out the theoretical causal pathways and possible outcomes (Babajanian & Hagen-Zanker, 2012; UNICEF, 2012). Social protection can reduce social
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/introduction/) - Social protection can have a wide range of objectives and impacts, from food security, access to services, gender equality, state-building, to social transformation. The emphasis for social protection programmes in developing countries has been on poverty and vulnerability reduction, and human development, for which there is good evidence. There is less evidence on longer-term developmental
- [The future of work](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/the-future-of-work/) - Social protection systems around the world face challenges to provide full and effective coverage for workers in all forms of employment, including those in ‘new’ forms of employment. The nature of work is expected to change markedly over the coming decades. Major trends are: automation and digitalisation, labour market changes (including the rise of the
- [State-building and citizenship](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/state-building-and-citizenship/) - Social protection may have potential to build state institutions and contribute to social cohesion by strengthening the state–citizen ‘contract’, promoting ‘social inclusion, integration and greater accountability’ (UNDP, 2016: 20). This relationship is widely discussed but is complex and there is no rigorous evidence to support the link between social protection, state-building, and social cohesion (Carpenter
- [Global issues and debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-protection/global-issues-and-debates-2/) - Sections: Coverage, spend and systems Financing, affordability and fiscal space Political economy State-building and citizenship Targeting Conditionality Public works programmes Graduation and cash plus The future of work Universal basic income Humanitarian–social protection linkages Climate resilience Urban contexts Digital social protection
- [Statebuilding and peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/statebuilding-and-peacebuilding/) - Statebuilding and peacebuilding, while conceptually distinct, are becoming more closely integrated in academic and policy circles. This Topic Guide looks at the links (and tensions) between statebuilding and peacebuilding, how these activities interact, and how they can be approached in practice. A related Guide looks at State-Society Relations and Citizenship in Situations of Conflict and Fragility, including
- [Organised crime, violence and development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/) - Organised crime ranges from protection economies and extortion rackets to cybercrime, oil theft, money laundering, counterfeiting, maritime piracy and the trafficking and/or smuggling of people, firearms, illicit drugs, and wildlife. It is sometimes associated with violence, but there is no strong correlation between them. Conventional law enforcement and security approaches to tackling organised crime are insufficient, and can sometimes
- [Linking conflict analysis with practice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/principles-and-lessons-for-conflict-analysis/linking-conflict-analysis-with-practice/) - The literature widely identifies the challenges of linking analysis and practice – this applies to conflict analyses and also other forms of analysis (e.g. PEA, early warning indicators) (OECD, 2002). CDA Collaborative (2013: 4) note that, as conflict analyses are often disconnected from programme strategies, they do not help with the ‘so what?’ question. This
- [Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/challenges/) - Different perspectives of conflict shape conflict analysis Differing overlapping worldviews of what constitutes violent conflict and peace, how to identify confict and what causes it can influence the focus and conclusions of conflict analysis and subsequent policy choices (Ballentine & Nitzschke, 2003). For example, some see conflict as an irrational dysfunction of the system, which
- [Choosing the method](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/principles-and-lessons-for-conflict-analysis/choosing-the-method/) - Commissioning Conflict analyses are typically funded, published and/or written by policymakers, practitioners (especially INGOs), think tanks, policy-oriented research centres, human rights organisations and private sector actors / consultancies. The conflict sensitivity literature and aid effectiveness principles highlight the benefits of joint analyses (within governments, between donors, between INGOs, etc.) to generate shared understandings and joined-up
- [Conflict analysis tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/conflict-analysis-tools/) - Numerous toolkits and manuals provide models of how to conduct conflict analysis. There is no one best practice or one methodology for conflict analysis to lead to better programming, finds CDA Collaborative (2013), based on analysis of 26 case studies and 1,000+ consultations with practitioners. Choosing the most appropriate tool depends on the context; the
- [Core elements of conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/core-elements/) - Violent conflict is about politics, power, contestation between actors and the (re)shaping of institutions for the benefit of some (and at the expense of others). People and groups do not randomly fight each other, even if stark inequalities or other grievances prevail in a society, they need to be mobilised. An understanding of these processes
- [Choosing the team](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/principles-and-lessons-for-conflict-analysis/choosing-the-team/) - Team composition Conflict analysis can be led by an internal team, or by external consultants. The conflict sensitivity literature recommends that conflict analysis be carried out by the commissioning actor’s in-house staff, to improve the impact of the analysis, to ensure the findings and recommendations are relevant to the commissioner, to challenge internal staff assumptions
- [Definitions  and concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/definitions-and-concepts/) - Conflict is the result of a disagreement between actors on the basis of perceived incompatible goals (Conflict Sensitivity Consortium, 2012: 2). Disagreements and conflicts are inevitable everyday occurrences – and their resolution can result in constructive change. Conflicts are often analysed at different levels – interpersonal, group/community and national – and in terms of how
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/summary/) - Conflict analysis is a structured process of analysis to understand conflict. It focuses on the conflict profile, the actors involved and their perspectives, the causes of conflict, and the dynamics of how these elements interact (Conflict Sensitivity Consortium, 2012). A huge amount of literature analyses conflict. This topic guide focuses specifically on the systematic approaches
- [Conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/) - Conflict analysis is a structured process of analysis to understand conflict. It focuses on the conflict profile (its history), the actors involved and their perspectives, the causes of conflict, and the dynamics of how these elements interact. This Topic Guide looks at how conflict analysis is done – at the systematic approaches and tools for conflict analysis developed
- [Principles and lessons for conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-analysis/principles-and-lessons-for-conflict-analysis/)
- [Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/challenges/) - There is widespread agreement among humanitarian, development, statebuilding and peacebuilding actors about the importance of conflict sensitivity. However, there are still various factors that have undermined the successful operationalisation of conflict sensitivity. These include: Inconsistent application of conflict sensitivity… …at the policy and organisational level The majority of learning about conflict sensitive practice has been
- [Countering violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/countering-violent-extremism/) - This Topic Guide introduces conceptual and practical approaches to violent extremism in different contexts, setting out what we know from the literature (English and Arabic).
- [Social movements](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-movements/) - Social movements express social, cultural, political or economic concerns locally, nationally or transnationally, and they are found in both democratic and repressive states. A variety of actors use social movements to champion a cause and direct, promote or resist change. This topic guide introduces some of the key literature and debates on social movements and collective
- [Donor approaches to gender](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/donor-approaches-to-gender/) - Page contents Bilateral donors Multilateral development banks Donor agencies have developed policies, approaches and guidelines for addressing and monitoring gender issues in their development work. Below is a selection of key donor-published materials. Bilateral donors Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australian Government AusAID. (2011). ‘Promoting Opportunities for All: Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment’, Thematic Strategy,
- [Overview](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/overview/) - Background and context The full brunt of cumulative greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions will be felt over the years to come but climate change impacts are already here. Fifteen of the 16 warmest years on record (since 1880) have occurred since 2001 (NASA, 2016). At the same time, Hallegatte et al. (2016) estimate that, without the
- [Conclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/conclusion/) - This Topic Guide has drawn from a wide body of literature to gather insights for development professionals on the drivers, opportunities and constraints for national governments in effectively developing and implementing climate change policies that support sustainable development. Despite the relevance of PEAs in understanding how different actors, incentives and ideas may impact the feasibility
- [Fiscal policies](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/fiscal-policies/) - Carbon pricing While this Topic Guide cannot cover the subject comprehensively, carbon pricing is generally viewed as an essential instrument in the toolbox of fiscal reforms for climate action, albeit primarily through an economic lens. Through either a tax or a cap-and-trade system, carbon pricing places a price on carbon emissions to account for social
- [City and subnational climate governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/city-and-subnational-climate-governance/) - Subnational and urban policy-making can serve as a useful experiment and piloting opportunity for policies that may be developed nationally, as well as for underpinning climate commitments by mobilising resources and political support. Half of the world’s population now lives in cities and accounts for 80% of the world’s economic output and 70% of its
- [Key sectors](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/key-sectors/) - Agriculture, the rural economy and land tenure Governance issues are central to the resilience of rural economies, agriculture and food security to climate change, particularly in developing countries with more vulnerable populations. Many rural economies are already subject to non-climate stressors such as insecure land tenure, underinvestment in agriculture and global shifts and shocks in
- [The private sector](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/the-private-sector/) - Businesses are widely seen as the non-state actors with the most influence on climate policy decisions, given their role in economic development, including direct investments, public revenue expansion and ability to innovate and create greater economic power and influence for the state. The private sector contributes significantly through the development of technology and infrastructure for
- [The role of coalitions in renewable energy policy reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/the-role-of-coalitions-in-renewable-energy-policy-reform/) - Schmitz (2016) summarises how constituencies have gathered and aligned around climate-relevant policies in China, India, Brazil and South Africa. These cases highlight that framing renewable energy policy around non-climate co-benefits ‒ such as more abundant energy supply and electricity access, the growth of domestic manufacturing of renewable energy components and job creation ‒ are often
- [Coalitions and policy framing: introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/coalitions-and-policy-framing/) - Most countries face huge political challenges to decarbonise their economies while addressing structural and societal drivers of vulnerability. Increasingly visible climate impacts may open windows of political opportunity, but the brief timeframe within which to operate intensifies the challenge. Effective responses will require building new coalitions and strengthening existing ones to take on incumbent fossil
- [Governance of climate finance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/building-effective-institutions-to-implement-climate-policies/governance-of-climate-finance/) - The effectiveness of climate finance mechanisms in promoting low-carbon development and building resilience will depend on the capacity of national institutions to prioritise and coordinate effectively, and to monitor and ensure the distribution of costs and benefits does not reinforce vulnerabilities or exclusion (Sovacool et al., 2015). Through the UNFCCC, developed countries have committed to
- [Gender and climate governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/building-effective-institutions-to-implement-climate-policies/gender-and-climate-governance/) - While responses to climate change informed by gender analysis often focus on differentiated vulnerabilities, there is evidence that women and men have different consumption patterns (leading to different emissions), use energy and transport differently and may have different attitudes and perceptions towards climate policies (EIGE, 2012). To address gender-based inequalities and vulnerabilities from climate change,
- [Information-sharing and public engagement](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/building-effective-institutions-to-implement-climate-policies/information-sharing-and-public-engagement/) - The collection, management, dissemination and use of different types of information is central to climate governance. Climate governance requires the institutional capacity to effectively manage information as well as the mandate and incentive to make it public and involve outside stakeholders in its production. While some capacity barriers related to meteorological and climate modelling information
- [Policy coherence and integration](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/building-effective-institutions-to-implement-climate-policies/policy-coherence-and-integration/) - While climate policy cuts across economy and society, different sectors will require responses that are more narrowly defined. While some countries are establishing institutions designed to coordinate and direct economy-wide climate policies (such as the UK and Kenya, as described earlier), the effects of economy-wide climate policies cannot be contained to one institution (Asselt et
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/building-effective-institutions-to-implement-climate-policies/introduction/) - North (1991: 97) describes institutions as ‘humanly devised… informal constraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, and codes of conduct) and formal constraints (constitutions, laws, property rights)… that structure political, economic, and social interaction’. While institutional capacity is often used to refer to the means and ability for government bodies to carry out key functions, more recent
- [Overcoming psychological barriers and discounting](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/addressing-political-economy-barriers/overcoming-psychological-barriers-and-discounting/) - Understanding how different actors and social groups conceptualise and act on climate risk can help development professionals and policy-makers develop strategies to shape political positions. As the success of adaptation programmes depends also on the decisions individuals and households make (e.g. on crop selection or disaster risk management), adaptation managers must consider how best to
- [Credibility and commitment in national climate governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/addressing-political-economy-barriers/credibility-and-commitment-in-national-climate-governance-2/) - The credibility of policy-making institutions and regulatory bodies is likely to influence the decision-making of affected entities, such as businesses or subnational governments. Perceptions of low credibility may delay compliance or decisions to invest in low-carbon technology or infrastructure. Political leaders can signal their level of commitment to climate action through a variety of legal,
- [Political economy of climate change decision-making](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/addressing-political-economy-barriers/political-economy-of-climate-change-decision-making/) - National policy-makers have been enacting climate-related laws and policies with increasing frequency. Even prior to Paris, a near-global assessment of climate change laws and policies in 2015 found that 804 existed, nearly double the number in 2009. More importantly, at least 58 countries have enacted framework legislation that addresses both emissions mitigation and adaptation (Nachmany
- [National climate change governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/) - Without the rapid implementation of pro-poor, climate-informed development policies, climate change impacts could result in 100 million more people in extreme poverty by 2030. Development policies need to consider climate risk scenarios while expanding ‘no-regrets’ social protection programmes that provide benefits to vulnerable populations under different climate scenarios. This Topic Guide looks at climate change
- [Building effective institutions to implement climate policies](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/building-effective-institutions-to-implement-climate-policies/)
- [Addressing political economy barriers](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/national-climate-change-governance/addressing-political-economy-barriers/)
- [Urban governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/) - What is urban governance and why does it matter? How can key urban policy issues be addressed? This topic guide introduces the literature on urban governance and its relationship to growth and poverty reduction. It considers the key debates and issues, and sets out some implications for practice on specific urban governance challenges.
- [Key resources](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-resources/) - Websites C40 Cities group Cities Alliance Eldis: Urban poverty Global Development Research Center (GDRC): Urban governance Global Land Tool Network (GLTN) Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) Shack/Slum Dwellers International (SDI) Sustainable Cities Index (2016) UN Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) UN-Habitat Safer Cities Programme UN-Habitat Issues Papers Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO) World
- [International actors’ urban programmes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/international-actors-urban-programmes/) - African Development Bank The AfDB’s urban strategy seeks to boost the viability and competitiveness of African cities to ensure that they perform their role as real engines of economic growth and social development. The strategy involves three pillars: Infrastructure delivery: Deliver and expand basic infrastructure services and build capacity to maintain public infrastructure assets. Governance:
- [Strategies for the poor: autonomous action, claim-making and co-production](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/strategies-for-the-poor-autonomous-action-claim-making-and-co-production/) - Three forms of action are available to the urban poor to address their needs: autonomous action (independent of the state), claim-making (making demands on the state), and co-production (working with governments and aid agencies in decentralised flexible poverty reduction initiatives) (IIED, 2008: 2). The scale and importance of autonomous action of the urban poor is
- [Informal settlements](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/informal-settlements/) - The growth of informal settlements, slums and poor residential neighbourhoods is a global phenomenon accompanying the growth of urban populations. An estimated 25% of the world’s urban population live in informal settlements, with 213 million informal settlement residents added to the global population since 1990 (UN-Habitat, 2013b: 126–8). Informal settlements are residential areas where (UN-Habitat,
- [The informal economy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/the-informal-economy/) - A defining feature of rapid urbanisation in developing countries has been the growth of the informal economy and settlements. Certain groups suffer disproportionally from informal arrangements, most notably migrants, women, the disabled and children. Children, for example, are particularly vulnerable with mortality rates exceptionally high in informal settlements. Mitlin and Satterthwaite (2012) note that in
- [Community participation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/community-participation/) - Decentralisation is increasing local governments’ responsibilities, and democratisation is increasing their accountability to stakeholders. This brings opportunities and challenges for supporting citizen participation and coalitions of the poor. City managers need to be more responsive to communities and civil society groups and involve those affected by changes in policy or planning (UNESCAP & UN-Habitat, 2015).
- [Gender equality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/gender-equality/) - For women, urbanisation can facilitate: increased legal protection; the narrowing of gender gaps in primary schooling and higher university attendance; improved access to services and infrastructure; greater employment opportunities; and a relaxation of gendered socio-cultural restrictions compared with rural settings (Chant, 2013; Klugman et al., 2014; Chen & Skinner, 2014). However, women and girls are
- [Planning and regulation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/municipal-capacity/planning-and-regulation/) - In contexts of rapid urbanisation and increasing decentralisation, municipal governments face challenges for which their structures, processes and capacities are sometimes inadequate. Rapid urbanisation has generated growing demand for urban services and infrastructure. Simultaneously, national policies and laws are assigning ever more responsibilities to municipal government, devolving planning and fiscal powers that can enhance their
- [The city-national interface](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/the-city-national-interface/) - Academics (Moir et al., 2014; Parnell & Simon, 2014) and donors (World Bank, 2009; OECD, 2015; UN-Habitat, 2015d) agree that effective urban governance depends not only on local institutions and actors but also on the framework set by national governments that establishes a connection between the city and broader regional and national development. (See the
- [Why does urban governance matter?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/concepts-and-debates/why-does-urban-governance-matter/) - Managing cities and urban growth is one of the defining challenges of the twenty-first century. If managed well, cities can act as engines of growth and provide inhabitants with better job opportunities and improved healthcare, housing, safety and social development. Further, cities can contribute to national growth through increased revenue generation and political stability, as
- [Why does urban growth occur?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/concepts-and-debates/why-does-urban-growth-occur/) - Urban growth is thought to occur because of the real and perceived benefits of the clustering of human activity (economic and social) in areas of close proximity (Henderson, 2002). Urban centres offer economies of scale in productive enterprises and public investment. Perceived opportunities such as better and more diverse jobs, improved services and the potential
- [Context](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/concepts-and-debates/context/) - Key messages Approximately 54% of the world’s population live in urban areas; this is expected to increase to 66% by 2050. The highest rates of urban growth are expected in low- and middle-income countries. Managing urban growth is one of the defining challenges of the twenty-first century, particularly in the poorest and most fragile countries
- [Political economy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/state-of-the-evidence/political-economy/) - The evidence base on urban governance in the developing world is growing but remains limited. It consists largely of literature reviews and case studies with limited conceptual or empirical basis. Whilst a substantial body of literature addresses the issues in this Topic Guide, the evidence base needs to be better harnessed to inform policy and
- [State of the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/state-of-the-evidence/)
- [Key policy challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/)
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/key-policy-challenges-for-urban-governance-introduction/) - Key messages Urban governance is often neither inclusive nor participatory. There are large gaps between the poor and non-poor in their access to social, economic and political opportunities and ability to participate in and leverage the benefits of urban living. Governance frameworks need to encourage policy coordination at local and regional levels and include the
- [Municipal capacity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/municipal-capacity/)
- [Concepts and debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/concepts-and-debates/)
- [Elements of effective urban governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/)
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance-introduction/) - Key messages Effective urban governance depends on four core elements: The city-national interface: Effective urban governance depends not only on local institutions and actors, but also on the framework set by national governments that links the city and broader regional and national development. However, in many contexts, inadequate institutional frameworks have impeded effective urban governance.
- [Key definitions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-definitions/) - The key definitions used to discuss urban areas, urbanisation and urban growth are subject to much debate. For the purposes of this topic guide, selected concepts are defined below. Citizen-led co-production refers to the joint development of public services by citizens and state. Many urban poor organisations have sought to shift engagement with government from
- [Second and third tier cities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/state-of-the-evidence/second-and-third-tier-cities/) - It is in medium-sized and small cities of the developing world that urban growth is expected to be greatest. Urban risks are also expected to be greatest in these cities, as they are generally less well-resourced in terms of professional capacity, governance and finance. Limited investment in infrastructure and urban services such as water, solid
- [Data](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/state-of-the-evidence/data/) - The lack of reliable subnational data for sectors and geographic areas undermines the design, implementation and monitoring of effective interventions by municipal governments, relevant national ministries and donor organisations. Mitlin and Satterthwaite (2012) highlight the difficulty of accurately assessing the scale of urban poverty, given the paucity of comparable data and difficulties in capturing complexity
- [Cities, conflict and fragility](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/state-of-the-evidence/cities-conflict-and-fragility/) - Gupte and Commins (2016: 7) note that there are multiple and overlapping forms of violence, and the way these interact have important consequences for understanding violence and order in future cities. Muggah (2012: vi) highlights that, while there is substantial research on the consequences of urban violence across low- and medium-income settings, as well as
- [Political settlements](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/state-of-the-evidence/political-settlements/) - An evidence review for the UK Department for International Development (DFID) notes that political settlements grounded in inclusive nation-building projects that transcend narrowly defined identities tend to be more stable and resilient (Rocha Menocal, 2015). Further discussion of political settlements and their relation to urban governance in fragile and post-conflict states would be useful. Research has
- [Cities and climate change](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/cities-and-climate-change/) - Research estimates that while cities occupy only 2% of land, they produce 70-80% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, account for over 60% of global energy consumption, and produce 70% of global waste (World Bank, 2010b: 15; UN-Habitat, 2010b). Whilst this section focuses on addressing climate change in urban areas, links between urban, peri-urban and rural
- [Urban migration](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/urban-migration/) - Migration is a driver of urbanisation (IOM, 2015), and urban migration (both national and international) is an increasing trend of the twenty-first century. Figures are subject to much debate, but it is estimated that globally there are 740 million internal (UNDP, 2009) and 232 million international migrants (UNDESA, 2013b). Accordingly, debates on the impact of migration flows
- [Cities, conflict and fragility](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/cities-conflict-and-fragility/) - Urban conflict and violence affect country and metropolitan level economic development, and the livelihoods and well-being of poor households and communities. Conflict refers to ‘situations where individuals and groups have incongruent interests that are contradictory and potentially mutually exclusive but contained’; violence is the manifestation of that conflict (Moser & Rodgers 2012: 2). Cities are
- [Access to services](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/access-to-services/) - The provision of sufficient, affordable, good quality basic services is considered a core function of urban government. Delivery of services (water, sanitation, waste management and housing etc.) correlates closely with the health and well-being of urban residents. Inadequate service provision also affects the development of human capital, constraining prospects of escaping poverty. However, in many
- [Participation and inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/key-policy-challenges/participation-and-inclusion/) - Ensuring municipal governments leverage economic growth to address inequality and foster inclusion is a multidimensional challenge. A central facet of urban governance is negotiating the relationships among stakeholders. This can be facilitated by governance frameworks that encourage policy coordination at local and regional levels but also include the voices and participation of the poor. Given
- [Political systems and institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/political-systems-and-institutions/) - A critical factor influencing whether cities are governed in a sustainable, inclusive and pro-poor manner is the operation of local institutions and whose interests they represent. These institutions define the framework for citizen-citizen and citizen-state interactions, and influence collective decision-making over the allocation of public resources and delivery of local public services (Shah & Shah,
- [The role of the private sector](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/the-role-of-the-private-sector/) - The private sector is a key stakeholder in both urban and economic development, being a major contributor to national income and the principal job creator and employer. The private sector provides around 90% of employment in the developing world (including formal and informal jobs), delivers critical goods and services and contributes to tax revenues and
- [Service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/municipal-capacity/service-delivery/) - The provision of sufficient, affordable and quality basic services is considered a core function of urban governments. Delivery of services (water, sanitation, waste management and housing) correlates closely with the health and well-being of urban residents. However, in many developing countries, delivery is constrained by challenges of coordination, governance, finance and capacity, which are exacerbated
- [Human and administrative capacity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/municipal-capacity/human-and-administrative-capacity/) - A strong and capable local government is considered a key lever to ensure inclusive and sustainable urban development, facilitating governance systems that are accountable and promote balanced multi-stakeholder involvement (Sorensen & Okata, 2011). However, while many cities have undergone substantial social, economic and physical transformation, the human and administrative capacities of municipal governments have failed
- [Urban finance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/elements-of-effective-urban-governance/municipal-capacity/urban-finance/) - Municipal government finances are secured from a range of sources. Central government transfers are the most significant, based on formulae that cover recurrent and capital spending, but they can be erratic. Municipal borrowing enables regional and local governments to finance capital investments. It helps to address infrastructure deficits by shifting the burden of current expenditure
- [What is urban governance?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/concepts-and-debates/what-is-urban-governance/) - Urban governance refers to how government (local, regional and national) and stakeholders decide how to plan, finance and manage urban areas. It involves a continuous process of negotiation and contestation over the allocation of social and material resources and political power. It is, therefore, profoundly political, influenced by the creation and operation of political institutions,
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/urban-governance/summary/) - What is urban governance and why does it matter? This topic guide introduces the literature on urban governance and its relationship to growth and poverty reduction. It considers the key debates and issues, and sets out some implications for practice on specific urban governance challenges. The 21st century has been referred to as the first
- [Poverty and inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/) - This topic guide introduces key readings and debates on poverty and inequality. It covers measurement and analysis, trends and projections, and understanding and addressing extreme poverty and inequality.
- [Key references: Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/key-references-poverty/) - Coudouel, A., Hentschel, J. S., & Wodon, Q. T. (2002). Poverty measurement and analysis, in the poverty reduction strategy paper sourcebook. Washington: World Bank. How can you analyse well-being? This chapter provides an introduction to poverty, inequality, and vulnerability analysis and a guide to resources, tools and data sources. It focuses mainly on income and
- [Measuring inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/1-3-measures-of-inequality/) - Inequality measures can be used to illustrate inequality between groups and within groups (Haughton & Khandker, 2009). The choice of measurement can have different policy implications. A variety of databases provide data on inequality from a wide range of developed and developing countries. However, the data is hard to compare, as survey coverage is still
- [Issues with poverty measurements](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/issues-with-poverty-measurements/) - Qualitative poverty measurements Qualitative poverty measures can help in the understanding of poverty dynamics and the well-being of a household at more than one point in time. Building upon Robert Chamber’s Participatory Rural Appraisal, participatory poverty assessment (PPA) aims to understand poverty from the perspective of poor people in order to better inform poverty reduction
- [Measuring multidimensional poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/measuring-multidimensional-poverty/) - There is increasing agreement that it is important for poverty measures to reflect the multidimensional nature of poverty (Poverty Analysis Discussion Group, 2012). A number of commentators argue that aiming to reduce poverty using the USD 1.90 a day poverty measure ignores many overlapping disadvantages faced by people living in poverty, including malnutrition, poor sanitation,
- [Measuring poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/measuring-poverty/) - The World Bank Handbook on Poverty and Inequality (Haughton & Khandker, 2009, p. 1) suggests it is important to measure poverty in order to: keep poor people on the agenda; identify poor people and thus be able to target appropriate interventions; monitor and evaluate projects and policy interventions geared to poor people; evaluate the effectiveness
- [Key references: Inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/key-references-inequality/) - Clements, B., Mooij, R., Gupta, S., & Keen, M. (Eds.) (2015). Inequality and fiscal policy. Washington, DC: IMF. How can governments address rising inequality while simultaneously promoting economic efficiency and more robust economic growth? Fiscal policy is the government's most powerful tool for addressing inequality. It affects households’ consumption directly (through taxes and transfers) and
- [Key references: Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/key-references-poverty/) - Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2011). Poor economics: A radical rethinking of the way to fight global poverty. New York: Public Affairs. Are there ways for the poor to improve their lives, and what is preventing them from being able to do these things? Using 15 years of data from research by MIT’s Poverty
- [Drivers of poverty and inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/drivers-of-poverty-and-inequality/) - It is important to understand the drivers of poverty and inequality to combat them effectively. Drivers of poverty Lack of inclusive economic growth and jobs, insecure jobs and low wages, and limited livelihoods and opportunities, result in poverty and the inability to escape poverty (Haughton & Khandker, 2009; Handley et al., 2009; Shepherd, 2011; von
- [The impact of inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/the-impact-of-inequality/) - Inequality is a problem in itself but also a challenge to the eradication of extreme poverty (and fulfilment of the SDGs, and prior to this, the MDGs) (UNICEF et al., 2014; Kabeer, 2010). Inequality is important to poverty because the relative position of individuals or households in society is considered an important aspect of their
- [The characteristics of poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/) - Tackling poverty is often framed as an issue of social justice and altruism. If poverty is not eradicated, millions of people will continue to go hungry, die prematurely, live insecure and precarious lives, suffer from lack of education, and fail to achieve their full potential (Hulme, 2010). High levels of poverty may also be bad
- [Understanding and addressing extreme poverty and inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/)
- [Key references: Poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/trends-and-future-projections-for-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/key-references-poverty/) - Alkire, S., Roche, J. M., Sumner, A. (2013). Where do the world’s multidimensionally poor people live? (Working Paper No. 61). Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative. Where do the world’s multi-dimensionally (MPI) poor people live? This paper considers the difference between the global distribution of multidimensional poverty and income poverty. Only a quarter of MPI
- [Projections](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/trends-and-future-projections-for-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/poverty-projections/) - Poverty projections World Bank The World Bank (2016) suggests that the 2030 poverty target of three per cent is aspirational but possibly attainable under an optimistic scenario. However, even if it is met on average globally, deep pockets of multidimensional poverty are likely to remain (World Bank, 2016; Cruz et al., 2015). Reaching the three
- [Inequality situation and trends](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/trends-and-future-projections-for-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/2-2-inequality-situation-and-trends/) - Income inequality at a global level tends to be conceived of in three different ways: global income inequality, based on the income of all individuals regardless of where they live; between-country income inequality, based on the mean income in different countries; and between country income inequality that also factors in countries’ population sizes (Milanovic, 2012).
- [Poverty situation and trends](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/trends-and-future-projections-for-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/poverty-situation-and-trends/) - There has been considerable progress in global poverty reduction, although the extent of that progress is widely debated. MDG Goal 1 extreme poverty target was met early with global poverty rates halved, and about one billion people rising out of extreme poverty between 1990 and 2015. (The global proportion of people living on less than
- [Trends and projections](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/trends-and-future-projections-for-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/)
- [Key references: Inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/key-references-inequality/) - Kabeer, N. (2010). Can the MDGs provide a pathway to social justice? The challenge of intersecting inequalities. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. What impact do intersecting inequalities have on the achievement of the MDGs? The focus on average progress disguises a picture of uneven achievement that is characterised by deep disparities between social groups. The
- [Defining poverty, extreme poverty and inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/defining-poverty-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/) - Poverty and well-being Poverty is a pronounced deprivation in well-being. Income or consumption poverty refers to lack of monetary resources to meet needs. Absolute poverty is poverty below a set line of what is required to access minimum needs for survival. Relative poverty is set in relation to others. Shelter poverty, food poverty, asset poverty,
- [Measurement and analysis](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/measuring-and-analysing-poverty-and-inequality/)
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/executive-summary/) - The World Bank estimates that in 2015 700 million people were living in extreme poverty under the updated international poverty line of USD 1.90 a day, and that about one billion people rose out of extreme poverty between 1990 and 2015 (World Bank, 2016). There was a decline in global income inequality between 2000 and
- [Addressing poverty and inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/poverty-and-inequality/understanding-and-addressing-extreme-poverty-and-inequality/addressing-poverty-and-inequality/) - Poverty reduction policies Poverty reduction policies need to be tailored to specific national and regional contexts, and require better data or better use of data to inform their design (CPRC, 2009). Poverty reduction is mainly about tackling the causes of poverty. Common drivers of poverty reduction relate to economic growth, job quality, social transfers, building
- [Open data, transparency and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/) - Open data involves the release of data so that anyone can access, use and share it. One of the main objectives of making data open is to promote transparency. For open data and transparency initiatives to lead to accountability, the required conditions include: getting the right data published; enabling actors to find, process and use information, and to act
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/summary/) - It is increasingly recognised in the international aid community that organised crime hinders inclusive and sustainable development in many ways. Today’s universe of organised criminal activities and of the individuals, groups and networks involved in them is virtually infinite. Spanning the globe, organised criminal operations range from illegal protection economies and extortion rackets to cybercrime,
- [Enforcement and sanctions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/getting-to-accountability-issues-and-examples/enforcement-and-sanctions/) - Transparency and open data cannot compensate for a lack of accountability infrastructure, but well-designed programmes can increase opportunities for disclosure to lead to accountability. Enforcement and sanctions can be delivered through formal political means, or through social accountability. Political accountability and enforcement The final step in the chain of accountability is the threat and imposition
- [Community-generated data](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/getting-to-accountability-issues-and-examples/community-generated-data/) - Open government data is not the only source that can be used in attempting to hold institutions to account. Open data technologies, standards and tools have also made it possible for non-state actors to gather, collate and use data that can either fill data gaps or be used to contest official information. Mapping is one
- [Accessing and using data](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/getting-to-accountability-issues-and-examples/accessing-and-using-data/) - In most cases, data needs to be processed for it to be useful. It must be processed and used – displayed visually, built into a service or decision-making tool, or used as part of a campaign, for example. An early article on open data described the assumption that “by making data publicly available in re-usable
- [The politics of data disclosure](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/getting-to-accountability-issues-and-examples/the-politics-of-data-disclosure/) - A ‘Catch-22’ of open data and transparency for accountability is that the high-value data needed is quite often held by, and must be released by, the same institutions we wish to hold to account. Getting data and information published requires political will, incentives and strategic engagement. While international trends and pressures have helped drive the
- [Organised crime and development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/organised-crime-and-development/) - The analysis presented in the previous section strongly suggests organised crime and the myriad unlawful activities and businesses it spawns in national and sub-national jurisdictions as well as transnationally pose serious—potential and real—challenges for development. Depending on the case, the members of, and participants in, criminal groups and networks, respectively, include professional criminals but also
- [Tackling organised crime](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/tackling-organised-crime/) - Tackling organised crime and mitigating its negative, corrosive impacts on communities, societies and states has typically been viewed as a law enforcement task. Around the world, fighting organised crime is primarily the remit of police forces and judicial institutions, which have been supported or sometimes even supplanted by the military where security conditions have become
- [Implications](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/implications-for-policy-programming-and-research/)
- [Linking open data and transparency](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/key-concepts-and-the-state-of-the-evidence/linking-open-data-and-transparency/) - There is a strong intersection between open data and transparency as concepts. As fields of study and practice in international development, however, open data and transparency have remained somewhat separate. In international development, open data work is often associated with building statistical capacity, developing ICT infrastructure, enabling civic technology activities, and supporting public and private
- [Lessons on programme implementation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/lessons-on-programme-implementation/)
- [International drivers of open data and transparency](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/adoption-of-open-data-and-transparency/international-drivers-of-open-data-and-transparency/) - International drivers of open data broadly align with drivers of transparency, and reflect overlapping trends among donors and other actors. These trends include: a drive to fill data gaps and improve statistical capacity in developing countries for improved design and evaluation of government and aid programmes a push for reforms aimed at opening up government
- [Adoption of open data and transparency](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/adoption-of-open-data-and-transparency/)
- [Debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/debates/)
- [Key concepts and the state of the evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/key-concepts-and-the-state-of-the-evidence/)
- [Open data](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/key-concepts-and-the-state-of-the-evidence/open-data/) - Open data involves the release of data so that anyone can access, use and share it. The Open Data Charter (2015) describes six principles that aim to make data easier to find, use and combine: open by default timely and comprehensive accessible and usable comparable and interoperable for improved governance and citizen engagement for inclusive
- [Accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/key-concepts-and-the-state-of-the-evidence/accountability/) - Open data and transparency as fields of practice largely share a theory of change when it comes to their assumed impact on accountability. The transparency literature elaborates this relationship most clearly. Analysts acknowledge that “transparency is necessary but far from sufficient to produce accountability” (Fox, 2007). Rather, transparency is only “one quarter” of the “minimal
- [Definitions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/definitions/) - Accountability means ensuring officials in public, private and voluntary sector organisations are answerable for their actions and that there is redress when duties and commitments are not met. An accountability relationship can be thought of as having four stages (adapted from the Transparency & Accountability Initiative): standard setting: setting out expected behaviour and judgement criteria
- [Resources, tools and guidance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/resources-tools-and-guidance/) - Open data reports, videos and guides How to make a business case for open data (Open Data Institute) How to plan and budget an open data initiative (Open Data Institute) Open data handbook (Open Knowledge International) Open government data: The book (Joshua Tauberer) Open data policy guidelines (Sunlight Foundation) Guide to data protection (UK Information Commissioner's
- [Contextual success factors](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/lessons-on-programme-implementation/contextual-success-factors/) - A major study of transparency and accountability initiatives’ impact highlights the importance of the context in which they take place (Gaventa & McGee, 2013). The authors find the following explanatory variables. Supply-side success factors: The level of democratisation affects success, with little evidence of impact in non-democracies, but some in emerging democracies and fragile states.
- [Success factors for implementing open data initiatives](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/lessons-on-programme-implementation/success-factors-for-implementing-open-data-initiatives/) - Political and legal aspects As noted above, political will is important to implementation, and any initiative should seek to have a mandate, which could be political or legal, formal or informal. Examples of open data policies can be accessed via the OGP or the World Bank’s toolkit. The mandate should enable the team overseeing the initiative
- [Avoidance of meaningful reforms](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/adoption-of-open-data-and-transparency/avoidance-of-meaningful-reforms/) - While there are many international initiatives driving the open data and transparency agendas, the literature shows that successful implementation requires local ownership and the political will to battle vested interests and change long-held work practices, and to engage meaningfully with users. (See especially: Avila et al., 2010; Davies, 2012; Attard et al., 2015; Smith et
- [Impacts on inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/debates/impacts-on-inequality/) - Work on open data and transparency can sometimes be blind to the political and often contested nature of data, and to programmes’ potential effects on local dynamics. In a project mapping new technologies emerging in transparency and accountability, Avila et al. (2010) found that initiatives “need to be designed intelligently and with an eye towards
- [Adoption of open data in developing countries](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/adoption-of-open-data-and-transparency/adoption-of-open-data-in-developing-countries/) - Developing countries are lagging behind in the adoption of open data at government level, in the overall availability of data, and in the use of open data for transparency and accountability. The Open Data Barometer is an annual worldwide survey of government commitments, implementation and impact. The most recent (3rd) edition found open data initiatives
- [Consent](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/debates/consent/) - Much existing regulation around data collection assumes that data will be used only for the purposes for which it was collected. However, one of the premises of open data is that data gathered to answer one set of questions might also be useful to a different set of actors with different objectives. For example, satellite
- [Concerns about exploitation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/debates/concerns-about-exploitation/) - The ‘Wild West’ analogy reflects concern, not just about privacy violations, but that open data may enable the exploitation of the people about whom data has been collected. Products, services or insights generated from such data could bring financial or other gains to some people, but not to those from whom it was collected. Individuals
- [Privacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/debates/privacy/) - With regard to privacy, there are concerns about the inadvertent publication of personal information and the de-anonymisation of data, whereby individuals can be identified through analysing or combining datasets. The Open Government Guide, produced by the Open Government Partnership, places the responsibility on governments to be accountable in their handling of citizens’ personal information. The
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/summar/) - This topic guide introduces evidence and lessons learned about open data, transparency and accountability in the international development context. It discusses the definitions, theories, challenges and debates presented by the relationship between these concepts, summarises the current state of open data implementation in international development, and highlights lessons and resources for designing and implementing open
- [Getting to accountability: issues and examples](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/getting-to-accountability-issues-and-examples/)
- [Transparency](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/key-concepts-and-the-state-of-the-evidence/transparency/) - Transparency is a characteristic of government, companies, organisations and individuals that are open in the clear disclosure of information, rules, plans, processes and actions. Simply making information available is not sufficient to achieve transparency; information needs to be managed and published so it is relevant, accessible, timely and accurate. Kosack and Fung (2014) distinguish four types
- [Organised crime and violence and instability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/organised-crime-and-violence-and-instability/) - Organised crime and illicit markets are commonly associated with violence and political instability (World Bank, 2011). Already in the early 20th century, social theorist Walter Benjamin had written that 'the great criminal has aroused the secret admiration of the public' not because of 'his deed but […] [because of] the violence to which it bears
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/organised-crime-and-development/introduction/) - The analysis presented in the previous section strongly suggests organised crime and the myriad unlawful activities and businesses it spawns in national and sub-national jurisdictions as well as transnationally pose serious—potential and real—challenges for development. The members of, and participants in, criminal groups and networks can include professional criminals but also a broad range of other state
- [Transitional justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/) - It is increasingly recognised that legacies of mass violence and human rights violations can, if left unaddressed, fuel future conflicts. Transitional justice seeks to tackle the legacies of large-scale past abuses, and includes mechanisms such as truth-telling initiatives, criminal prosecutions, reparations processes, cultural interventions, vetting and institutional reform. This Topic Guide provides an overview of the
- [Key issues and lessons](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/implications-for-policy-programming-and-research/introduction/) - The evidence presented in this Topic Guide is unequivocal in showing that organised crime poses serious challenges for development. Rather than 'development in reverse', organised criminal activities promote what could be called non-development. Illegal and criminal interests that span the public–private divide and involve non-state and state actors upend, transform and reconfigure the rules of
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/tackling-organised-crime/tackling-organised-crime/) - Tackling organised crime and mitigating its negative, corrosive impacts on communities, societies and states has typically been viewed as a law enforcement task. Around the world, fighting organised crime is primarily the remit of police forces and judicial institutions, which have been supported or sometimes even supplanted by the military where security conditions have become
- [Entry points for development actors](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/tackling-organised-crime/entry-points-for-development-actors/) - It is important for development agencies to recognise that 'understanding in this area is difficult from the outset, unlike health or education-related work, for example'; and that, as 'newcomers' in this field, development donors have few tested policy responses to build on. By the same token, in a manner similar to the earlier debates about
- [(Human) security issues](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/organised-crime-and-development/human-security-issues/) - Security has likely been the international community’s top concern in relation to organised crime in the past two decades or longer. Following the end of the Cold War and in the context of accelerating globalisation, Western governments and international organisations identified organised crime as a new threat to the security of states and the international
- [Economic issues](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/organised-crime-and-development/economic-issues/) - As mentioned at the outset of this Topic Guide, organised criminal activities as diverse as extortion, drug trafficking, migrant smuggling, oil theft on an industrial scale, illegal gold and diamond mining, cybercrime and counterfeiting, among many other 'lines of criminal business', generate huge amounts of money every year. Such activities are essentially geared at stealing
- [What is organised crime?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/what-is-organised-crime/) - In 2010, Executive Director of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Antonio Maria Costa, issued a stern warning to the international community regarding the growing threat posed by organised crime to the security of states and the development and well-being of societies across the globe: In the past quarter century (namely, since the
- [Evidence gaps and questions for future research](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/implications-for-policy-programming-and-research/evidence-gaps-and-questions-for-future-research/) - The evidence presented in this Topic Guide shows (1) that organised crime is a highly complex and dynamic economic, political and social phenomenon that comes in many different guises and is spreading across the globe; and (2) that organised crime affects a number of both low- and middle-income countries and fragile states in particularly serious
- [Towards integrated approaches?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/implications-for-policy-programming-and-research/towards-integrated-approaches/) - Accepting that conventional law enforcement and security approaches to tackling organised crime are insufficient (and at times also unrealistic and counterproductive) and recognising that the evidence shows that such approaches can have unintended consequences, such as promoting violence and deepening poverty, a question arises as to the alternative. Some development actors are moving towards integrated
- [Containing organised crime](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/tackling-organised-crime/containing-organised-crime/) - The relationship between development and organised crime has at least two dimensions: development interventions can help contain and/or prevent the emergence and spread of organised criminal activities and groups; and they can seek to protect development processes from being negatively affected by organised crime. In the first type of intervention, development is a function of
- [Socio-cultural issues](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/organised-crime-and-development/socio-cultural-issues/) - The socio-cultural dimension is perhaps the aspect of the relationship between organised crime and development that so far has received the least attention in the academic and policy literatures. While the evidence base needs to be broadened, it seems undeniable that, for subaltern and underprivileged groups, particularly young people, in many development settings there is
- [Political and governance issues](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/organised-crime-violence-development/organised-crime-and-development/political-and-governance-issues/) - While crucial, the political dimension of organised crime and its impact on the state, political institutions and governance in developing countries has long not received the attention it warrants. As discussed above, criminal organisations have typically been portrayed as somehow detached and alienated from the state or, at the most, representing some kind of parallel
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/summary/) - Transitional justice seeks to address the destructive and painful legacies of mass violence and human rights violations. It involves mechanisms and processes such as truth-telling, criminal prosecutions, reparations, memorialisation, traditional justice, cultural interventions, vetting and institutional reform. The application of transitional justice is often more effective with a combination of mechanisms, to enable greater innovation
- [Diaspora, refugees and IDPs](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/thematic-aspects-of-transitional-justice/diaspora-refugees-and-idps/) - Transitional justice mechanisms have focused primarily on institutions within national borders and have had limited outreach to populations outside the home country (Mey, 2008; Rimmer, 2010). While the opinions of home country residents about transitional justice options have in certain contexts been solicited, this has rarely been the case for refugees or IDPs (Iyodu, 2012).
- [Gender and youth](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/thematic-aspects-of-transitional-justice/gender-and-youth/) - The nature and consequences of human rights violations differ significantly for men, women and children. The needs of men, women and children in the aftermath of mass violence can also differ. Transitional justice processes and mechanism should incorporate these varying perspectives and ensure the needs of women and children are met. Gender The ad hoc
- [Art and transitional justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/thematic-aspects-of-transitional-justice/art-and-transitional-justice/) - Art and transitional justice is an emerging area of scholarship that explores how cultural and artistic projects (public art installations, photography, dance, music theatre, literature, film, memorials) can open up spaces for new political thinking, possibilities and action (Garnsey, 2016). Cultural interventions can contribute to the aims of transitional justice by making victims visible. They
- [Reconciliation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/thematic-aspects-of-transitional-justice/reconciliation/) - Reconciliation has been articulated as a specific goal of many transitional justice processes and mechanisms (Skaar, 2013). A review of transitional justice literature finds that reconciliation is considered the ‘ultimate goal’ of transitional justice, with the view that it is essential to preventing a renewal of conflict (Oduro, 2007, pp. 2–3). There is limited consensus,
- [Socioeconomic rights and development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/thematic-aspects-of-transitional-justice/socioeconomic-rights-and-development/) - The field of transitional justice has historically focused on violations of political and civil rights. Where conflict and group divisions are embedded in deeper socioeconomic inequalities and legacies of exploitation, however, processes and mechanisms may be limited in their impact if they fail to link to broader economic and social transformation (Brankovic & van der
- [Impact of transitional justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/thematic-aspects-of-transitional-justice/impact-of-transitional-justice/) - There is currently limited systematic evidence on the impacts of transitional justice. There is, however, growing recognition of the need to engage in such empirical research. Research is emerging, but still in the early stages. Nonetheless, many claims have been made about the positive impacts transitional justice can have on societies recovering from violent conflict.
- [Coordination with other sectors](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/approaches/coordination-with-other-sectors/) - Coordination between various actors involved in, connected to and affected by transitional justice is important (Edwards, 2013). There often remains a disconnect between those focusing on transitional justice objectives and strategies and other humanitarian and development interventions (Thoms et al., 2010; World Bank, 2012). For example, while the ICC seeks to challenge the power of
- [Timing and sequencing](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/approaches/timing-and-sequencing/) - Transitional justice measures are often designed and implemented hastily in the immediate aftermath of violence. Rushing transitional justice objectives could jeopardise the buy-in of key elites around peace-making, political settlement and/or constitutional reform processes that could lay the foundation for more inclusive political settlements. At the same time, failure to acknowledge and address legacies of
- [Outreach](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/approaches/outreach/) - Outreach programming comprises a set of tools and strategies that transitional justice measures put in place to communicate with the affected communities in which they operate. They are devised to raise awareness and understanding of the aims and functioning of transitional justice processes and mechanisms (Ramírez-Barat, 2014). Careful public outreach, including a variety of targeted
- [Participation and inclusive processes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/approaches/participation-and-inclusive-processes/) - Marginalisation and disempowerment are often at the core of human rights violations (Marginalisation and disempowerment are often at the core of human rights violations (USAID, 2014). Victimhood in turn results in further disempowerment, as the crimes ordinarily place victims in a situation where they are denied control and are subject to the perpetrators’ will (Pena
- [Local context and ownership](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/approaches/local-context-and-ownership/) - Transitional justice processes and mechanisms have been critiqued for being prescriptive and top-down – created and supported by the international community and national elites rather than tailored to the specific society. The prevailing policy options of criminal prosecutions and truth commissions (sometimes simultaneously) have resulted in an ‘almost prescriptive approach to “best practices” in dealing
- [Memorialisation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/mechanisms/memorialisation/) - Memorialisation refers to a range of processes and forms of collective remembrance. Memorials, museums, monuments and other places of memory represent important sites where the past can be confronted. Throughout the world, prior sites of atrocity, torture and genocide, mass grave sites and other similar locations have been turned into public memorials, drawing innovatively on
- [Reparations](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/mechanisms/reparations/) - Reparations refer to various measures that aim to redress past wrongs and provide compensation, rehabilitation and satisfaction for victims. These measures can involve the provision of material reparations, such as cash payments, or goods or services (e.g. education and physical and mental health assistance). Reparations also include symbolic measures such as disclosure of truth, public
- [Traditional justice systems](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/mechanisms/traditional-justice-systems/) - Traditional justice systems are increasingly seen as an integral mechanism through which to implement transitional justice (Triponel & Pearson, 2010). Traditional systems are often referred to by other terms, such as customary, informal, community-based, grassroots, indigenous and local (Allen & Macdonald, 2013). Their appeal lies in their potential to resonate more with local populations and
- [Trials](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/mechanisms/trials/) - Trials can take different forms, including international, hybrid and national courts and transnational criminal and civil proceedings. International courts have taken the form of ad hoc, temporary tribunals – notably the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR) in the 1990s. The International Criminal Court (ICC) was established in 2002 to
- [Truth commissions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/mechanisms/truth-commissions/) - Transitional justice mechanisms usually have limited timeframes and specific mandates. They include truth commissions, trials, traditional mechanisms, reparations, memorialisation, vetting and institutional reform. Institutional reforms are aimed at democratising and building public trust in state institutions. They overlap with many broader reforms in conflict-affected and fragile contexts. Vetting processes assess the integrity of individuals to
- [Mechanisms](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/mechanisms/)
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/introduction/) - The impact of violent conflict on a country’s society, economy and political governance is devastating and broad. The effects can be tangible and visible, including killed and injured civilians, destroyed or derelict bridges and wells and damaged or inadequate health care and education facilities. They can also be intangible, such as the collapse of state
- [Thematic aspects of transitional justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/thematic-aspects-of-transitional-justice/)
- [Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/approaches/)
- [Concepts and mechanisms](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/transitional-justice/concepts-and-mechanisms/)
- [Sector-wide approaches and the coordination of assistance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/sector-wide-approaches-and-the-coordination-of-assistance/) - A ‘whole of government’ or ‘comprehensive’ approach combines political, security and development interventions (DFID, 2010b, p. 2). They require donors to ensure cross-fertilisation of expertise and experience across relevant departments and that the right mix of expertise exists on the ground (OECD-DAC, 2007b). In contrast, ‘sector-wide approaches’, implemented jointly by multiple donors, combine ‘a broad
- [Value for money](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/value-for-money/) - The term ‘value for money’ (VfM) is ‘generally used to describe an explicit commitment to ensuring the best results possible are obtained from the money spent. For the UK Government, the use of this term reflects a concern for more transparency and accountability in public spending, and for obtaining the maximum benefit from the resources
- [Monitoring and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/monitoring-and-evaluation/) - Challenges The following section draws substantially on OECD-DAC (2012, p. 32-33), which offers several challenges associated with the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of security and justice programming, particularly in fragile and conflict-affected contexts. A lack of stakeholder participation: Experience shows that the participation of local actors in monitoring or evaluation processes means that they are
- [Using theories of change](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/using-theories-of-change/) - Theories of Change (ToCs) are important to programming in fragile and conflict-affected contexts because of the political dynamics and risks involved in bringing about change. There are few proven approaches or models to security and justice programming, and in many cases interventions are based on implicit theories, or are embedded in the skills, approaches, capacities,
- [Human rights](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/human-rights/) - Security and justice programming often takes place in challenging environments characterised by transitional and unstable political leadership, corruption, on-going violence, and attempts to implement open-ended or non-inclusive peace agreements (Schnabel, 2009). Donors will often be working with countries, institutions or actors where concerns about adherence to human rights norms exist (HMG, 2011b) and where human
- [Working with legal pluralism](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/working-with-legal-pluralism/) - Donors find it difficult to work across multiple layers of security and justice provision, assessing the complex power relationships and understanding the political risks at all levels (Albrecht & Kyed, 2010; OECD, 2010), but engagement across all of these levels and particularly with non-state actors is important (Baker, 2010). Addressing this challenge requires a degree
- [Gender-informed security and justice programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/gender-informed-security-and-justice-programming/) - Strategies for integrating a gender perspective into security and justice interventions include gender mainstreaming, in which the impact of all policies and programmes on women, men, girls and boys are considered at every stage of the programming cycle (Valasek, 2008); gender balancing, or ensuring equal representation of men and women in institutions and oversight bodies
- [Local ownership](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/local-ownership/) - Local ownership requires donor support for domestic initiatives, not vice versa. Initiatives that are not driven by domestic actors are unlikely to reflect local needs or dynamics, to be implemented properly, or to be sustained (Nathan, 2007, p. 4). A ‘minimalist’ approach to local ownership aims only to involve national-level political elites, because they possess
- [The pitfalls of overly technical and idealised approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/the-pitfalls-of-overly-technical-and-idealised-approaches/) - Whilst the importance of a people-centred and multi-layered approach is widely recognised in policy, in practice donor programmes have often emphasised technical approaches that focus on strengthening state security and justice institutional capacities (OECD-DAC, 2007a; Bryden, 2012). Support to non-state actors has been ad hoc or treated as an entry point for statebuilding based on
- [General principles for effective programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/general-principles-for-effective-programming/) - There is consensus that security and justice programming should be people-centred and multi-layered. A people-centred approach is rooted in how citizens (the ‘end users’) experience safety, security and justice (Denney & Domingo, 2013); it is ‘locally owned and based upon democratic norms and human rights principles and the rule of law… [and] a broad assessment
- [Strength of evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/strength-of-evidence/) - The evidence base for security and justice programming is generally weak, and much of the literature is normative, presenting recommendations with little empirical evidence about what works. There is little in the way of rigorous evaluation on the effects of institutional reform programmes on security and justice provision (Roseveare, 2013, p. 43). Security and justice
- [Policing](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/policing/) - What is policing? SU (2014) distinguishes between police, policing and policing actors: ‘Police: the civil institution of a state, responsible for the prevention and detection of crime, and the provision of safety and security.’ ‘Policing: the activities carried out by policing actors in order to maintain law and order and provide safety and security.’ ‘Policing
- [Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/disarmament-demobilisation-and-reintegration/) - What is disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR)? DDR typically involves dismantling the command structures of armed groups and reducing the size of fighting forces and the number of weapons in circulation. Ex-combatants are either assisted to return to civilian life, with reintegration packages including cash or non-monetary benefits such as vocational training or counselling, or
- [Defence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/defence/) - What is the defence sector and why is it important? The armed forces constitute the most powerful security institution and can influence reform in other areas. Their primary function is to underpin the domestic and foreign policies of a state with force or the threat of force. As such, they are central to the protection
- [National security architectures](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/national-security-architectures/) - National management and decision-making structures National security architectures include management, decision-making and oversight structures and institutions, as well as national policies, strategies and plans. Many institutions and agencies contribute to national security management, so co-ordination of decision-making is important (Bearne et al., 2005). Overarching decision-making structures, such as National Security Councils, can cover policy, legislative,
- [Access to justice and legal empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/access-to-justice-and-legal-empowerment/) - What is legal empowerment? Legal empowerment is a key ‘demand-side’ response to addressing deficits in the rule of law. It entails extending legal provisions to the poor, and encouraging them to be more proactive in claiming their rights (Roseveare, 2013). Legal empowerment initiatives enable citizens in actively using the law and shaping it to their
- [Legal pluralism](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/legal-pluralism/) - What is legal pluralism? Roseveare (2013) defines legal pluralism as ‘the existence of multiple sources of law (both state and non-state) within the same geographical area. Although the rule of law is often represented as law being made and administered by the state, a growing body of literature suggests that the provision of a range
- [Gender](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/gender/) - What is gender? The term ‘gender’ is often used interchangeably with ‘women’. However, gender refers to women and men, and the relations between them (UN OSAGI, 2001). Gender sensitivity ‘does not simply mean including women and girls into existing processes but also reassessing any given process with a view to understanding how it affects and
- [The importance of safety, security and justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/concepts/the-importance-of-safety-security-and-justice/) - Priorities for citizens A number of studies, notably the World Bank’s Voices of the Poor report (a survey of poor people in 23 low and middle-income countries conducted over a period of years; Narayan et al., 2000), show that safety, security and justice are major concerns for citizens. Safety and security represent many things, including
- [The multi-layered reality of safety, security and justice provision](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/concepts/the-multi-layered-reality-of-safety-security-and-justice-provision/) - In fragile and conflict-affected contexts, a range of actors provide safety, security and justice. They act at different levels, many are associated with each other, and they have varying degrees of autonomy from the state. Consequently, the systems and structures by which safety, security, and justice are provided are multi-layered and highly complex (Baker &
- [The terminology used in donor programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/concepts/the-terminology-used-in-donor-programming/) - There are many different terms used by donors to describe efforts to support the provision of safety, security and justice for citizens.Common terms include security sector reform and security system reform (SSR), which are used by a number of donors and international institutions, including the UN and the OECD-DAC. For the UN, SSR entails ‘the
- [What are safety, security and justice?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/concepts/what-are-safety-security-and-justice/) - The importance of personal safety for citizens is linked to the need to establish human security, a people-centred notion of security, which recognises that ‘all individuals, in particular vulnerable people, are entitled to freedom from fear and freedom from want, with an equal opportunity to enjoy all their rights and fully develop their human potential’
- [Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/evidence/) - What do we know? Evidence guide How strong is the empirical evidence that approaches used in safety, security and justice programming have had an impact (whether positive, neutral, or negative) on the achievement of security and justice objectives? This table gives an overview of the research evidence discussed in the topic guide. Download table (2pp, 460
- [Gender and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/) - What do we know about the role of gender inequality in producing or exacerbating the structural causes of violence and conflict, and about the multi-layered effects of violence and conflict on gender relations? What do we know about how to support gender equality in fragile and conflict-affected situations (FCAS)? This Topic Guide introduces the research
- [Fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/fragile-states/) - This Topic Guide introduces some of the best literature on state fragility and the challenge of aid effectiveness and lessons learned from international engagement in these contexts. It highlights the major debates in the international development and academic community on understanding and responding to fragile situations. It is intended primarily as a reference guide for policymakers.
- [Socio-political cohesion and nationhood](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/socio-political-cohesion-and-nationhood/) - Unifying disparate peoples at national and local levels and promoting cohesion in conflict-affected and fragile states are important intangible aspects of statebuilding and peacebuilding. A legitimate political order needs to be based on some agreement about the boundaries of the political community, national priorities and collective identity. In addition, a shared over-arching identity can focus
- [Civic trust and citizenship](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/civic-trust-and-citizenship/) - Efforts to promote coexistence and inter-group reconciliation processes have generally been more prominent in peacebuilding. They are equally important in statebuilding; trust is necessary for political and economic development as it facilitates cooperation. Trust and confidence are necessary not only at interpersonal and inter-group levels, but in terms of shared norms and values and trust
- [Intra-society relations](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/intra-society-relations/) - When violence and fragility destroy ‘social fabrics’, it is essential to understand how people can begin to interact again and how inter-group relationships can recover. This is also critical for the prevention of violent conflict and fragility. Developing institutions that can mitigate inter-group conflict by focusing on individual protections and peaceful resolution of conflict are
- [Civic trust and socio-political cohesion: overview](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/civic-trust-and-socio-political-cohesion-overview/) - Social and political fragmentation and weak civic and inter-group trust are often characteristics of situations of fragility and violent conflict. Such divisions can contribute to and be an outcome of fragility and conflict. In situations of fragility, political identity, fragmentation and weak state institutions reinforce each other. They undermine state legitimacy and the formation of
- [Statelessness](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/statelessness/) - ‘Statelessness’, in a strictly legal sense, refers to individuals or groups who are not considered nationals by any state. Such persons have few rights in a state-driven international system. Individuals and groups may become stateless through forced migration, during periods of violent conflict and/or political transition. Their statelessness may persist from the absence of rule
- [Interaction of formal and informal institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/interaction-of-formal-and-informal-institutions/) - While formal state institutions may be weak or deemed illegitimate in fragile and conflict-affected contexts, there are often informal institutions that persist and retain legitimacy. These institutions are diverse and may include community mechanisms or customary local governance institutions. Often, they fulfil some of the functions expected of the state. Statebuilding initiatives have often focused
- [State legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/state-legitimacy/) - State legitimacy is a key aspect of state-society relations. State repression and violence, which occurs in many conflict-affected contexts, results in negative experiences of citizens with the state, a legacy of mistrust, and rejection of the legitimacy of state institutions. In situations of fragility, the inability or unwillingness of states to provide for the welfare
- [State-society relations: overview](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/state-society-relations-overview/) - State-society relations is defined by DFID as ‘interactions between state institutions and societal groups to negotiate how public authority is exercised and how it can be influenced by people. They are focused on issues such as defining the mutual rights and obligations of state and society, negotiating how public resources should be allocated and establishing
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-society-relations-and-citizenship/introduction/) - The impact of violent conflict and fragility on a country’s society, economy and political governance is devastating and encompassing. The effects can be tangible and visible, including killed and injured civilians; destroyed or derelict infrastructure; and poor and inadequate public service facilities. They can also be intangible, such as lack of confidence and distrust in
- [Climate change and social development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/) - This topic guide synthesises literature on the links between climate change and social development, and includes evidence of their interactions, lessons, approaches and tools. It considers climate change impacts and climate-relevant interventions in the following areas: five sectors: agriculture and food security, health, water, energy, and low-carbon transport; three types of contexts: conflict-affected and insecure
- [Disaster Risk Reduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/reducing-risk-and-building-adaptive-capacity/disaster-risk-reduction/) - The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) defines Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) as ‘the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the casual factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/summary/) - What is the impact of climate change on social development goals? How can social development analysis and interventions reduce vulnerability to climate change and improve people’s resilience and adaptive capacity? Climate change is fundamentally a social development issue. The impacts of a changing climate – including increases in extreme weather events and rising temperatures –
- [Climate change adaptation and mitigation programmes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/climate-change-adaptation-and-mitigation-programmes/) - Mainstreaming social development approaches will add value to climate adaptation and mitigation programme design and implementation (Morchain & Kelsey, 2016; Mearns & Norton, 2010; FAO, 2012). Using social analysis during design, programme support and evaluation broadens and deepens understanding of the contextual changes in the socio-economic environment, including livelihoods and overall development over time (FAO,
- [Understanding climate change as a social development issue](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/understanding-climate-change-as-a-social-development-issue/) - What is climate change? The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as ‘a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (for example by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persist for an extended period, typically decades or longer’
- [Urban settings](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/adapting-to-context/urban-settings/) - How will climate change affect urban communities? The urban poor are on the front line of climate change (Baker, 2012). Cities are often ill-equipped to deal with environmental changes and, given their high population densities and infrastructure, have substantial exposure to natural hazards. Factors that contribute to cities’ vulnerability and increased exposure include inadequate infrastructure,
- [Social protection](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/reducing-risk-and-building-adaptive-capacity/social-protection/) - How is social protection affected by climate change? Available evidence suggests climate change will have serious adverse long-term impacts on the lives of social protection beneficiaries, given the severity of shocks and the inadequacy of risk protection. Increases in climate change, and particularly climate-induced agricultural variability, are likely to increase the need for safety nets
- [Low-carbon transport](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/sector-impacts-and-interventions/low-carbon-transport/) - What role does low-carbon transport play in climate mitigation and adaptation? Low-carbon development is essential to reduce adverse effects of climate change, as well as maximise the opportunity to advance to green, sustainable energy, technology and manufacturing (expert comment). Transport is inextricably linked to development and economic growth, and is one of the fastest growing
- [Conflict and security](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/adapting-to-context/conflict-and-security/) - What is the relationship between climate change and conflict? There is widespread concern that climate change has the potential to undermine human security and incite conflict. However, evidence of any direct causal relationship between climate change and security is inconsistent. Some qualitative material and single-case analyses infer correlations between resource scarcity and increased violence (Buhaug
- [Coastal zones](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/adapting-to-context/coastal-zones/) - Climate change effects on coastal zones and adaptation responses Coastal zones are already experiencing adverse effects of climate change and will be increasingly exposed to risk in the coming decades. Without adaptation, sea level rise and climate change are likely to make some islands and low-lying areas uninhabitable. Both biophysical and socioeconomic factors underlie climate-related
- [Energy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/sector-impacts-and-interventions/energy/) - What role does low carbon energy play in social development? Energy affects all aspects of development from livelihoods and education to health and gender equality. It is central to both sustainable development and poverty reduction efforts. Affordable energy access is a prerequisite for poverty reduction and economic growth, and also plays a crucial role in
- [Water](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/sector-impacts-and-interventions/water/) - Effects of climate change on fresh water resources There is abundant evidence that freshwater resources will be affected by climate change, and concern that these impacts will harm societies and ecosystems, and subsequently social and economic development (Bates et al., 2008; Calow et al., 2011; UN Water, n. d.). Observed and projected impacts will increase
- [Reducing risk and building adaptive capacity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/reducing-risk-and-building-adaptive-capacity/)
- [Adapting to context](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/adapting-to-context/) - Conflict and security What is the relationship between climate change and conflict? There is widespread concern that climate change has the potential to undermine human security and incite conflict. However, evidence of any direct causal relationship between climate change and security is inconsistent. Some qualitative material and single-case analyses infer correlations between resource scarcity and
- [Sector impacts and interventions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/sector-impacts-and-interventions/) - Climate change will affect key sectors and areas of social development and livelihoods programming in multiple ways. However, there are gaps and uncertainties about the effects of climate projections. This section identifies available evidence on how climate change will affect social development goals in relation to specific development sectors and contexts. In turn, this section
- [Health](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/climate-change-and-social-development/sector-impacts-and-interventions/health/) - How will climate change affect health? Environmental changes are already affecting human health, and are likely to lead to greater frequency and coverage of infectious diseases such as malaria, particularly in developing countries. A rise in air pollutants and allergens may lead to more cases of respiratory disease (Confalonieri et al., 2007). Greater frequency and
- [Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/what-do-we-know-about-civil-service-reform/) - What do we know about civil service reform? Evidence guide: Strength of evidence for the impact of selected interventions What do we know about which civil service reform interventions have had a positive, neutral or negative impact, and where? This table gives an overview of the research evidence discussed in the topic guide. Summary The
- [Gender and economic rights](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-and-economic-rights/) - Page contents: Introduction Property rights and access to resources Women and agriculture Labour market participation Gender and the care economy Women’s entrepreneurship The gendered impact of financial and food crises Gender and migration Further resources Introduction The literature on gender and economic rights focuses almost exclusively on the link between women’s economic rights and women’s
- [Benefits of disaster resilience](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/concepts/benefits-of-disaster-resilience/) - The lens of resilience can help to enhance responses to disaster risk as it calls for a holistic consideration of hazards, exposure, risk, vulnerability and capacity (DFID, 2011a; Manyena, 2006, p. 436). Disaster resilience programming aims to save lives whilst protecting infrastructure, livelihoods, social systems and the environment (Cabot Venton et al., 2013; Turnbull et
- [What is disaster resilience?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/concepts/what-is-disaster-resilience/) - Disaster resilience is the ability of individuals, communities, organisations and states to adapt to and recover from hazards, shocks or stresses without compromising long-term prospects for development. According to the Hyogo Framework for Action (UNISDR, 2005), disaster resilience is determined by the degree to which individuals, communities and public and private organisations are capable of
- [Economic development in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - This Topic Guide draws on lessons from programmes and case studies to explore which types of economic development interventions can be effective in FCAS and which factors have contributed to successes and failures.
- [Overview](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/overview/) - Contemporary discussions about human rights and their role in international development are born out of a vast philosophical tradition which cuts across a number of disciplines such as law, anthropology, politics, sociology and theology. An understanding of how and why human rights approaches can be applied to international development requires an appreciation of these theoretical
- [Disasters and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/conflict-and-emergencies/) - Disaster risk reduction People with disabilities are often excluded from disaster management and risk reduction processes (UNISDR, 2014; Smith et al., 2012, p. 5). A survey of people with disabilities by the UN Office of Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) found that 85.57 per cent of respondents from 137 countries had not participated in community disaster
- [Policies, frameworks and tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/policies-frameworks-and-tools/) - A mapping of the disability inclusion policies and practices of major multilateral and bilateral agencies (Lord et al., 2010) finds that disability inclusion is increasingly part of international cooperation and development aid. Policies often combine several approaches to the inclusion of disability in development, including human rights and participation, and disability is included through both
- [Disability inclusive approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/disability-inclusive-approaches/) - Best practice approaches to ensuring that international development/humanitarian programmes are inclusive of and accessible to people with disabilities need not be costly or complicated. They can be applied across all international development sectors. They include the following. Mainstreaming Mainstreaming disability in development and humanitarian response is broadly defined as the inclusion of people with disabilities in
- [Impact of disability inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/impact-of-disability-inclusion/) - Much more evidence is available about the impact of the exclusion of people with disabilities than the impact of their inclusion, as exclusion is still so common. In addition, it should be noted that decisions on how to include people with disabilities can be inherently political. However, some evidence and estimates indicate that disability inclusion leads to
- [Barriers to disability inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/barriers-to-disability-inclusion/) - The previous section outlines the current situation faced by many people with disabilities across the world. It highlights the various different barriers in the different sectors which result in the exclusion of people with disabilities from society. Similar barriers also mean that people with disabilities are excluded from, or unable to access, mainstream development and
- [Lack of data](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/lack-of-data/) - The invisibility of people with disabilities in international development Disability is still largely absent from data collection and monitoring mechanisms in international development (Mitra, 2013, p. e178). The invisibility of people with disabilities in the mainstream development narrative has ‘resulted in development interventions unintentionally leaving out people with disabilities from their target groups’ (Al Ju’beh,
- [Macro-economic costs](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/macro-economic-costs/) - The exclusion of people with disabilities involves losses in productivity and human potential (DFID, 2000, p. 4), which have economic costs for societies (Buckup, 2010). One study in Bangladesh found that, ‘reductions in wage earnings attributed to lower levels of education among people with disabilities and their child caregivers were estimated to cost the economy USD
- [Violence and justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/violence-and-justice/) - Rates of violence A systematic review found that adults with disabilities were ‘at a higher risk of violence than are non-disabled adults, and those with mental illnesses could be particularly vulnerable’, although robust studies are absent and there are large gaps in knowledge about the prevalence and risk of violence against adults and children with disabilities (Hughes
- [Health](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/health/) - Having a disability is not synonymous with having a health problem: many persons with disabilities live healthy lives. People with disabilities often have a diverse range of health needs (WHO & World Bank, 2011). However, there is some evidence that, collectively, they experience poorer levels of health and require more healthcare than the general population (WHO
- [Education](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/education/) - Studies across the world have found that children with disabilities are less likely to go to school than children without disabilities and are more likely to drop out (Groce et al., 2011, p. 1498; Morgon Banks & Polack, 2014, p. 26; Groce & Kett, 2014, p. 8; EFA, 2015, p. 101; WHO & World Bank, 2011, p.
- [Support and participation in society](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/support-and-participation-in-society/) - Children and adults with disabilities are often isolated from mainstream social, cultural, and political opportunities (WHO & World Bank, 2011, p. 263; HI & STC, 2011, p. v; Trani & Cannings, 2013, p. 58). Stigmatisation can lead to lack of registration of the birth of children with disabilities, which is a fundamental barrier to their participation in
- [Poverty and disability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/poverty-and-disability/) - While not all people with disabilities are poor, it is increasingly recognised that ‘disability is an important issue in poverty reduction and poverty alleviation efforts’ (Groce et al., 2011, p. 1493). A small but growing body of evidence is providing specific information about the association between disability and poverty, especially multi-dimensional poverty (Groce et al.,
- [Jobs, livelihoods and social protection](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/jobs/) - A large majority of people with disabilities are either not employed, under-employed or earn lower wages (Groce et al., 2011, p. 1499; WHO & World Bank, 2011, p. 235; Heymann et al., 2014, pp. 4-5; Mitra, 2014, p. 269). A study of 15 developing countries found that in nine of them there was a statistically significant
- [Inequalities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/inequalities/) - Disability does not necessarily imply limited wellbeing and poverty. Many people with disabilities live fulfilling lives, have families, earn a living, and are successful. However, a growing body of evidence indicates that they also face attitudinal, physical and institutional barriers and intersecting inequalities, which can result in multi-dimensional poverty, exclusion, and marginalisation. Exclusion in one area
- [Disability rights movement](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/background/disability-rights-movement/) - The evolving disability rights movement Historically, people with disabilities have largely been provided for through solutions that segregate them, such as residential institutions and special schools (WHO & World Bank, 2011, p. 3; Schulze, 2010, p. 16; Rimmerman, 2013, p. 22). However, responses to disability began to change in the 1970s, driven by the self-organisation
- [Disability prevalence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/background/disability-prevalence/) - Disability is not rare, however it is hard to obtain an estimate of the number of people with disabilities as there are big differences in the ways countries define and measure disability; the quality and methods of data collection; the reliability of sources; and disclosure rates as families may fear stigma and isolation (Al Ju’beh,
- [Definition of disability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/background/definition-of-disability/) - Disability is part of the human condition. Everyone is likely to experience it, either permanently or temporarily, at some point in their life (WHO & World Bank, 2011, p. 3). People with disabilities are diverse and not defined by their disability (Al Ju’beh, 2015, p. 14; WHO & World Bank, 2011, p. 7). Disabilities may
- [Accessibility](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/accessibility/) - Lack of accessibility of physical environment, information and public services prevents people with disabilities from living independently and participating fully in all aspects of life (DESA, 2013, p. 4; Al Ju’beh, 2015, p. 54). See also environmental barriers. Transport Inaccessible transport has been cited in a number of studies as a key barrier to people with disabilities
- [Water and sanitation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/water-and-sanitation/) - Lack of access to safe water and basic sanitation can exacerbate impairments and poverty for people with disabilities. The extent to which people with disabilities lack access to safe water and sanitation is unknown (Wilbur et al., 2013, p. 1). However, studies show that people with disabilities face difficulties collecting water due to the distance
- [Disability inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/) - This topic guide summarises some of the most rigorous available evidence on the key debates and challenges of disability inclusion in development and humanitarian response. Disability does not necessary imply limited wellbeing and poverty. Yet there is growing evidence that the estimated one billion people with disabilities face attitudinal, physical and institutional barriers that result
- [Use of language](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/background/language/) - The language used to describe people with disabilities is important as it is about fundamental respect for the integrity and dignity of people with disabilities (Al Ju’beh, 2015, p. 24). The use of ‘people/persons with disabilities’ is known as 'people first' language. It is based on the need 'to affirm and define the person first,
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/executive-summary/) - Disability prevalence Disability is not rare. An estimated one billion people or around 15 per cent of the world have some form of disability (WHO & World Bank, 2011). Disability is more common in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income countries, and among older age groups (WHO & World Bank, 2011; Mitra & Sambamoorthi, 2014).
- [The situation of people with disabilities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/the-situation-of-people-with-disabilities/)
- [Background](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disability-inclusion/background/)
- [Elections](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/elections/) - How can electoral systems be designed to adequately represent minorities? What lessons have been learned from a decade of international electoral assistance? What are the particular challenges of operating elections in post-conflict or fragile settings? Elections are the main political mechanism for allowing citizens to choose their government, and as such form a central pillar
- [Communication in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/communication-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Page contents The role of communication in state-building The role of media in fragile and conflict-affected states Media development in fragile and conflict-affected states Case studies: communication in fragile and conflict-affected states Further resources The role of communication in state-building How can communication structures and processes support state-building in fragile and conflict-affected states? Can they
- [Social development and human development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/) - This Topic Guide aims to answer the question ‘What is the interaction between social development issues and human development outcomes?’ An individual’s right to lead a long and healthy life, to be educated and to enjoy a decent standard of living cannot be realised without addressing social development issues. This is because these issues determine
- [Human development and age](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/human-development-and-age/) - How does age affect human development outcomes? It is widely known that the first five years of a child’s life are crucial to later development, with impacts echoing throughout life. A large amount of literature across international development topics looks at this period of life. Adolescence also involves specific needs and impacts, as young people
- [Human development and gender inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/human-development-and-gender-inequality/) - Persistent and entrenched gender inequalities mean that women often experience lower human development outcomes than men. There are strong pressures on both men and women to behave in certain ways, and clear structural inequalities based on sex. A gender perspective on human development helps address the underlying social factors perpetuating gender inequality. These factors result
- [Human development and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/human-development-and-accountability/) - Accountability is about ensuring that governments and service providers are answerable to their citizens and deliver on their commitments (political, financial or service delivery). To allow this, citizens must have a voice, and governments and service providers must have the ability and motivation to respond. This requires effective redress mechanisms when duties and commitments are
- [Human development and human rights](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/human-development-and-human-rights/) - Human rights encompass civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. They include everyone having a right to health, sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR), education and safe drinking water and sanitation. These rights have been formally and universally recognised by all countries from the 1948 Universal Declaration on Human Rights and reaffirmed through multiple
- [Concepts and debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/concepts-and-debates/) - Key concepts ‘Social development’ refers to many of the non-economic processes and outcomes of development, including but not limited to: reduced vulnerability; inclusion; wellbeing; accountability; people-centred approaches; and freedom from violence. It is fundamentally concerned with human rights, formal and informal power relations, inequality and possibilities for building greater equality between individuals and groups within
- [Analytical tools and monitoring and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/analytical-tools-and-monitoring-and-evaluation/) - This section provides key programme design and evaluation tools on integrating social development principles into human development programmes. Human rights De Albuqerque, C. (n.d.). On the right travel: Good practices in realising the rights to water and sanitation. UN. Freedman, L. P. (2001). Using human rights in maternal mortality programs: from analysis to strategy. International
- [Human development and social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-development-and-human-development/human-development-and-social-exclusion/) - Exclusionary processes create inequitable distribution of resources and unequal access to capabilities and rights necessary for human development (Popay et al., 2008). Social exclusion mediates access to services, which has a strong impact on human development outcomes. Sometimes marginalised groups are directly discriminated against and stigmatised, but they are also structurally excluded by factors including
- [Gender and media](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-and-media/) - Page contents Introduction Participation and influence of women in the media Media content and portrayal of men and women in the media Participatory community media Changing attitudes and behaviour Further resources Introduction Media play important roles in society. They report on current events, provide frameworks for interpretation, mobilise citizens with regard to various issues, reproduce
- [Gender](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/) - Gender is a way of looking at how social norms and power structures affect different groups of men and women. Understanding that men and women, boys and girls experience poverty differently, and face different barriers in accessing services, economic resources and political opportunities, helps to target interventions.
- [Assessing state-business relations and the challenges of reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/assessing-state-business-relations-and-the-challenges-of-reform/) - Political economy barriers to the emergence of effective state-business relations The literature on state-business relations in low income countries identifies six political economy barriers to the emergence of effective relations. Political settlements and elite commitment to growth A political settlement can be understood as “the forging of a common understanding, usually among elites, that their
- [Gender and citizenship](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-and-citizenship/) - Page contents Introduction Grassroots citizenship New media and citizenship Citizenship, conflict, state-society relations and statebuilding Case studies Introduction Citizenship is about ‘membership of a group or community that confers rights and responsibilities as a result of such membership. It is both a status (or an identity) and a practice or process of relating to the
- [Investment climate reforms](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/approaches-to-improving-the-effectiveness-of-state-business-relations/investment-climate-reforms/) - Investment climate (IC) reforms are regulatory reforms that promote private sector growth by reducing bureaucratic obstacles, costs and time constraints to doing business and improving the efficiency of legal institutions (World Bank 2015). IC reforms may be particularly beneficial for small firms, which face the highest costs of doing business relative to their sales (World
- [Which factors explain the emergence of effective state business-relations?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/drivers-of-success/which-factors-explain-the-emergence-of-effective-state-business-relations/) - The literature identifies four enabling factors as the conditions under which effective state-business relations emerge: State capabilities Effective state-business relations often need the presence of an economic bureaucracy staffed by relatively competent individuals who are insulated from the pressures of special interests. Such bureaucracies are characterised by a high degree of well institutionalised and organisationally
- [What is the state of the evidence?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/key-concepts-ideas-and-debates/what-is-the-state-of-the-evidence/) - Evidence drawn from statistical research and country case studies suggests that effective state-business relations are a key determinant of economic growth and structural transformation. However, the strongest evidence is mostly from East Asia, with more mixed results in other regions, and there is still a significant empirical challenge in addressing problems of measurement and attribution
- [Implications for future research, policy and programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/implications-for-future-research-policy-and-programming/) - Key issues around state-business relations The literature suggests that effective state-business relations are a key determinant of economic growth and structural transformation. The evidence is drawn from statistical research and country case-studies, mostly from East Asia. There is limited evidence that effective state-business relations can also contribute to improving the wider governance environment. The literature
- [Investment facilitation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/approaches-to-improving-the-effectiveness-of-state-business-relations/investment-facilitation/) - Investment facilitation usually takes place through an investment promotion agency (IPA), typically a government agency whose mission is to attract investment to a country, state, region or city. IPAs usually have four roles (OECD 2011): advocacy within government to seek necessary approvals or urge the removal of obstacles to investment; image building to promote the country as
- [Public-private dialogue mechanisms](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/approaches-to-improving-the-effectiveness-of-state-business-relations/public-private-dialogue-mechanisms/) - Following the Fourth High Level Forum on Aid (HLF-4) held in Busan in 2011, there has been increasing emphasis on public-private dialogues (PPDs), where “consultation with the private sector in the elaboration of national and sector plans is seen as a prerequisite for broadening country ownership of the development process” (Herzberg and Nicod 2013). PPDs
- [Business associations](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/approaches-to-improving-the-effectiveness-of-state-business-relations/business-associations/) - Business associations include peak business associations that represent a large segment of private firms in the country, chambers of commerce and business membership associations that represent smaller groups of businesses, and sector associations that represent firms in specific sectors or industries. The evidence on the success of business associations in contributing to effective state-business relations
- [Special economic zones](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/approaches-to-improving-the-effectiveness-of-state-business-relations/special-economic-zones/) - Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are geographical spaces in which firms are provided with regulatory or financial incentives. Typically, in a SEZ, “the rules of business are different from those that prevail in the national territory. These rules principally deal with investment conditions, international trade and customs, taxation, and the regulatory environment; whereby the zone is
- [Checks and balances on government](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/drivers-of-success/checks-and-balances-on-government/) - Strong checks and balances on government policies and on tax and expenditure help ensure that taxation policies and the provision of public goods are appropriate and of good quality (te Velde 2013). Strong checks on tax and expenditure policies do not imply the absence of corruption. Rent-extraction and rent-sharing are often a feature of effective
- [Drivers of success](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/drivers-of-success/) - While there is no single template for successful collaboration between the state and the business sector, the literature identifies the following elements of effective state-business relations, based on country experiences of successful collaboration. Credible commitments on the part of the government Credible commitment of the state to policies, deals or arrangements is an essential attribute
- [A stable policy environment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/drivers-of-success/a-stable-policy-environment/) - Firms in low-income countries operate in an uncertain environment and frequently face risk and resource shortages (Kang et al. 2014). Uncertainty can have significant negative effects on investment, particularly when investment involves large irreversible costs and investors can delay the decision to invest until they have further information (Dixit and Pindyck 1994). A stable policy
- [Information sharing](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/drivers-of-success/sharing-information/) - Accurate, reliable information is a crucial element of successful collaboration between the state and business. Regular sharing of information between the state and businesses helps ensure that private sector objectives are met with public action and that local level issues are fed into higher level policy processes (Sen 2014). The greater the flow of information,
- [Consultation, coordination and reciprocity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/drivers-of-success/consultation-coordination-and-reciprocity/) - Successful collaboration between the state and the private sector needs close consultation, coordination and reciprocity. The private sector depends on bureaucrats and politicians for the successful design and implementation of policies, and the government depends on the private sector to ensure that private firms make the profitable investments that are necessary for growth and for
- [Credible government commitments](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/drivers-of-success/credible-government-commitments/) - Credible commitment of the state to policies, deals or arrangements is an essential attribute of effective state-business relations. Investment decisions may have large sunk costs – that is, the costs of certain investments cannot be recovered in full if the investment decision turns out to be less profitable than anticipated (Pindyck 1991). The state needs
- [Debates on state-business relations](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/key-concepts-ideas-and-debates/debates-on-state-business-relations/) - While the importance of effective state-business relations in economic transformation and governance is widely recognised in the academic and policy literature, several issues of contention are unresolved. Can collusive state-business relations become collaborative over time? Collusive state-business relations are characterised by rent-seeking relations between business and the state, and the capture of state agencies and
- [Why do state-business relations matter?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/key-concepts-ideas-and-debates/why-do-state-business-relations-matter/) - Synergistic or effective state-business relations are seen as a key determinant of economic growth and structural transformation in low income countries (Hausmann 2014). They are important in several areas of policy and practice, including macroeconomics, trade, industrial development, taxation, public expenditure, infrastructure, competition, anti-corruption, transparency and accountability, and private sector development. There are several mechanisms
- [What are effective state-business relations?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/key-concepts-ideas-and-debates/what-are-effective-state-business-relations/) - State-business relations are relations between the public and private sectors. They can take the form of formal, regular, co-ordination or informal ad hoc interactions (te Velde 2013), and their scope can include the whole economy or target specific sectors, types of firms or policy processes. State-business relations may be “passive”, where the state does not
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/executive-summary/) - State-business relations are relations between the public and private sectors. They can take the form of formal, regular, co-ordination or informal ad hoc interactions, and their scope can include the whole economy or target specific sectors, types of firms or policy processes. State-business relations in low income countries are seen as a key determinant of
- [Approaches to improving the effectiveness of state-business relations](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/approaches-to-improving-the-effectiveness-of-state-business-relations/)
- [Key concepts, ideas and debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/key-concepts-ideas-and-debates/)
- [Presidential investors’ advisory councils](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/state-business-relations/approaches-to-improving-the-effectiveness-of-state-business-relations/presidential-investors-advisory-councils/) - Presidential Investors’ Advisory Councils (PIAC) were created by the presidents of Ghana, Tanzania and Senegal in 2002, and in Mali and Uganda in 2004. Subsequently, councils were set up in Mauritania and Benin. Ethiopia launched a Public-Private Consultative Forum – loosely modelled on the PIAC – in 2010. The PIACs were supported by the World
- [Voice, empowerment and accountability interventions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/approaches-interventions-and-tools/voice-empowerment-and-accountability-interventions/) - Institutions that strengthen the voice and empowerment of marginalised people and groups set the framework for state-society and intra-society interactions. There may be tensions between reforming and challenging existing institutions and institutionalising new practices, such as greater citizen-state engagement. Key resource on empowerment and accountability The GSDRC Topic Guide on Voice, Empowerment and Accountability (Combaz
- [Evidence gaps and questions for further research](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/implications-for-future-research-policies-and-programming/evidence-gaps-and-questions-for-further-research/) - Evidence gaps As noted throughout, there are a number of key evidence gaps in the literature. This lack of evidence of what works for economic programming in FCAS stems from the challenges of monitoring and evaluating changes that are inherently abstract, complex, and longer-term (Corlazzoli 2014). Several challenges have been identified: FCAS are more likely
- [Key issues and lessons](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/implications-for-future-research-policies-and-programming/key-issues-and-lessons/) - Key issues The key issues surrounding economic development in FCAS identified through the literature and case studies are summarised below. Conflict trap: Poor economic development processes and outcomes and conflict are mutually reinforcing. Breaking this trap presents a significant challenge, and operating within it means that donor interventions can have unintended negative consequences. FCAS-specific implementation
- [Natural resource management](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/approaches/natural-resource-management/) - While natural resources hold the potential to stimulate economic growth and socioeconomic improvements, this growth is not innately inclusive or transformational, and has the potential to undermine statebuilding and peacebuilding objectives. Therefore, policies to reduce the conflict potential of natural resources are necessary (UNDP 2008). For natural resources to contribute to inclusive and sustained post-conflict
- [Infrastructure](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/approaches/infrastructure/) - It is crucial to rebuild infrastructure in order to unlocking a fragile society’s economic potential, while also promoting social integration and reducing horizontal inequalities (Mills and Fan 2006; UNDP 2008; de Vries and Specker 2009). Also well documented is its potential to provide short-term jobs in construction and public works programmes (de Vries and Specker
- [Agriculture](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/approaches/agriculture/) - Agriculture interventions are considered a crucial aspect of early recovery efforts because they often offer the most important livelihood for the majority of the rural population in post-conflict settings (USAID 2009; de Vries and Specker 2009), contain immediate growth potential (USAID 2009), and provide social cohesion and security (de Vries and Specker 2009). As this
- [Employment creation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/approaches/employment-creation/) - There is substantial programming and research in the area of job creation in FCAS, but there remains an evidence gap on what types of interventions work best for which purposes and in what contexts. Employment creation interventions include direct short-and-long-term job creation programmes, interventions that foster self-employment, and macro-level policies (Holmes et al. 2013). As
- [Private sector development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/approaches/private-sector-development/) - Private sector development (PSD) encompasses a wide range of economic development programming in FCAS, including business climate reform and market development. The private sector is important for creating jobs, improving the population’s purchasing power, stimulating the local economy, and building trust between potential business partners. It also tends to recover faster than government following conflict
- [Key approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/approaches/approaches/) - Economic approaches feature prominently in peacebuilding and statebuilding practice (New Deal 2011; UNDP 2008; USAID 2009; World Bank 2011). According to USAID (2009), ‘The purpose of economic growth programming in post-conflict countries is both to reduce the risk of a return to conflict and to accelerate the improvement of well-being for everyone, particularly the conflict-affected
- [Legacy of Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/the-relationship-between-fragilityconflict-and-economic-development/legacy-of-conflict/) - Macro-level The key issues discussed in the literature around conflict legacy effects and macroeconomic conditions include: the challenges for economic development in such a context; risk factors for conflict relapse; the factors that help to enable economic development. Some of the identified challenges for economic growth in conflict legacy environments include the risk of relapse
- [Continuance of conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/the-relationship-between-fragilityconflict-and-economic-development/continuance-of-conflict/) - Macro-level Literature on the relationship between macroeconomic characteristics and fragility during periods of continued conflict is centred on: how economic conditions influence the duration of conflict; the growth effects of conflict; the mechanisms through which conflict influences growth; the sector-specific effects of conflict. Average economic growth rates tend to be low in FCAS, and particularly
- [Susceptibility to conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/the-relationship-between-fragilityconflict-and-economic-development/susceptibility-to-conflict/) - The relationship between a country’s economic characteristics and its fragility and susceptibility to conflict is complex and mutually reinforcing (See Holden and Pagel 2012). Collier (2009) identify three related causal paths: opportunity (or ‘greed’), grievance, and feasibility. This framework is generally considered to be useful for conceptualising the relationship between fragility and economic development. However,
- [Approaches, tools and interventions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/approaches-tools-and-interventions/)
- [Debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/)
- [Key language and concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/key-language-and-concepts/)
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/executive-summary/) - This Topic Guide explores the meaning of legitimacy in relation to state and armed non-state actors. It examines the dominant meanings of legitimacy used in international development and analyses how these have emerged. It also identifies and uses alternative conceptualisations of legitimacy to interpret the evidence on the relationship between legitimacy and service delivery, institutions,
- [Key concepts and definitions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/key-concepts-and-definitions/) - Fragile and conflict-affected states While the definition of ‘fragile and conflict-affected states’ (FCAS) lacks consensus, most development agencies use the term to describe a fundamental failure of the state to perform functions necessary to meet citizens’ basic needs and expectations. This includes the assurance of basic security, maintenance of law and justice, and provision of
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/executive-summary/) - The complex and reinforcing relationship between fragility/conflict and economic development is widely recognised, though not entirely understood. While trend observations suggest that low economic growth increases the risk of conflict and conflict reduces economic growth, this is not the case everywhere. Even where it does hold, the characteristics of economic growth and conflict differ widely
- [The legitimacy of states and armed non-state actors](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/) - Legitimacy is a crucial aspect of all power relations. Without legitimacy, power is exerted through coercion; with legitimacy, power can be exerted through voluntary or quasi-voluntary compliance. Legitimacy lies at the core of state-citizen relationships and thus of the whole state-building agenda. This Topic Guide explores the meaning of legitimacy in relation to state and
- [Accountability and responsiveness of the state and society](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/supplements/accountability-and-responsiveness-of-the-state-and-society/) - Page contents Introduction Forms of accountability: vertical accountability Forms of accountability: horizontal accountability Forms of accountability: social accountability Citizen-driven accountability tools in use Additional resources Introduction Efforts to empower citizens need to be accompanied by state mechanisms to ensure accountability and responsiveness. Accountability mechanisms can include formal top-down processes (such as elections, hearings, consultations) or
- [Implications for future research, policies and programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/implications-for-future-research-policies-and-programming/)
- [Key approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/approaches/)
- [The relationship between fragility/conflict and economic development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/the-relationship-between-fragilityconflict-and-economic-development/)
- [Approaches to assessing legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/key-language-and-concepts/approaches-to-assessing-legitimacy-2/) - There are two principal approaches to assessing legitimacy. One is concerned with normative standards to which an actor, institution or political order must conform in order to be considered legitimate. In this approach there is a right way that an actor, institution or political order should exercise power. A normative approach to state legitimacy, based
- [Monitoring and evaluating legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/approaches-tools-and-interventions/monitoring-and-evaluating-legitimacy/) - So far, the comprehensive measurement of legitimacy has been mainly the preserve of academics and has been attempted only over the last decade. Considering the difficulties experienced in doing this, it is not surprising that there are few examples of donor programmes successfully monitoring and tracking legitimacy and linking these measurements to programming decisions. In
- [Development interventions designed to affect legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/approaches-tools-and-interventions/development-interventions-designed-to-affect-legitimacy/) - Despite the increasing attention legitimacy has received in critical research and donor strategies, the translation of this into tangible interventions has been lagging. Indeed if the aim of state building in fragile states is to build legitimate states, the process of building a state has tended to remain vague in donor strategies. Teskey et al.(2012)
- [Tools for understanding context](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/approaches-tools-and-interventions/tools-for-understanding-context/) - A key challenge in planning an intervention is to understand the extent to which the justification of the organisation of power by a state or non-state actors is aligned with the beliefs of significant proportions of the population. Several questions would arise. To what extent does the justification of the allocation of power align with
- [Tools for building legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/approaches-tools-and-interventions/tools-for-building-legitimacy/) - Donors have used several different strategies to deal with indications that an intervention is likely to decrease state legitimacy, increase the legitimacy of an illegitimate actor, or suffer from weak legitimacy itself. Prioritising outcomes This strategy is often used in the humanitarian sector where the legitimacy of an intervention is understood in terms of the
- [Alternative understandings of legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/key-language-and-concepts/alternative-understandings-of-legitimacy/) - Other scholars of legitimacy have advocated conceptualising legitimacy, not in terms of sources but in terms of its dimensions. According to Beetham (1991), the three categories of legitimacy outlined by Weber are, in fact, all different types of beliefs and form a component of legitimacy rather than representing a type of legitimacy. For Beetham, legitimacy
- [Dominant understandings of legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/key-language-and-concepts/dominant-understandings-of-legitimacy/) - In international development, legitimacy has been heavily influenced by Weber in two ways. The first is through the fragile state discourse which draws heavily on Weberian definitions of the state. Weber’s ideas on the ideal-type bureaucracy, based on legal rational principles, influenced an understanding of state strength in terms of capacity to provide for the
- [The importance of understanding legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/key-language-and-concepts/the-importance-of-understanding-legitimacy/) - Legitimacy is a crucial aspect of all power relations. Without legitimacy, power is exerted through coercion; with legitimacy, power can be exerted through voluntary or quasi-voluntary compliance. This holds for both power exerted by a state (Levi, 1997; Beetham, 1991; Hurd ,1999; Tyler, 2006; Kelman & Hamilton, 1989) and by armed non-state groups (Maher, 2012).
- [The social impact of private sector development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/) - The private sector can have a transformational impact on peoples’ lives as a creator of jobs and producer of goods and services that poor people use. Donor agencies are paying increasing attention to how private sector development can be leveraged to support poverty reduction and sustainable, equitable and inclusive economic growth. Making use of social
- [Traditional/social media and legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/traditionalsocial-media-and-legitimacy/) - There are plenty of examples documented in the literature of states and non-state groups using both traditional and social media to strengthen their legitimacy. From the publication of a ‘soul book’ by Saparmurat Niyazov, while president of Turkmenistan, which was intended to act as spiritual guidance for the nation (Matveeva, 2009) to Al Shabaab’s multimedia
- [The interaction between the legitimacy of states and non-state actors](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/the-interaction-between-the-legitimacy-of-states-and-non-state-actors/) - The framing of violent extremist groups in opposition to the state is especially subject to normative bias. For donors, the actions of such groups are often understood to ‘exploit’ the failures of the state rather than to fill a gap; or to undermine a state instead of presenting an alternative to a receptive constituency. Depending
- [Service delivery and legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/service-delivery-and-legitimacy/) - Research on the relationship between service delivery and perceived legitimacy of states indicates that this relationship is contingent on a multitude of factors. Access to services does not necessarily result in increased state legitimacy (Mcloughlin, 2014; Mallett et al., 2015). Some research indicates that the quality of services can have a positive impact on perceptions
- [Legitimacy strengthening strategies of armed non-state groups](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/legitimacy-strengthening-strategies-of-armed-non-state-groups/) - In Somalia and the Philippines, Al Shabaab and MILF boosted their legitimacy using similar strategies. Both groups provided social services, with a particular emphasis on justice and security. Both groups drew on Islamic narratives to promote unity among disparate ethnic groups (in the Philippines) and clan-based groups (in Somalia). The Tamil Tigers (LTTE), Al Shabaab
- [Job creation and legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/job-creation-and-legitimacy/) - Influenced by the conceptualization of legitimacy in terms of performance (or ‘output’ in the OECD typology), there is a tendency in the literature to relate the legitimacy of a state to social and material improvement (e.g. Burnell, 2006) or more directly to the creation of jobs (e.g. Teskey et al., 2012). There is some evidence
- [International standards and local perceptions of legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/international-standards-and-local-perceptions-of-legitimacy/) - A lot has been written about the irrelevance of international norms and standards to local conceptions of legitimacy (Roberts, 2011;Chandler, 2004). The success of Somaliland in developing a legitimate post-conflict government without any recognition by international fora or compliance with international norms and standards would seem to provide further evidence that international factors are not
- [International intervention and legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/international-intervention-and-legitimacy/) - There are many who question the ability of the prevailing approaches to international interventions in fragile contexts to build legitimacy, particularly the prioritisation by some actors of elections and capacity-building of institutions. Roberts (2013) argues that international interventions which address and empower elites, while offering citizens the plebiscite, do not represent the creation of legitimate
- [Ideology, religion and legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/ideology-religion-and-legitimacy/) - The literature provides a mixed picture of how religion and ideology shape the claims of states and non-state actors. For instance, in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, the state is aware of a growing respect for Islamic values among the younger generation. To stop opposition movements using Islamic narratives as a source of legitimacy, the state draws
- [Formal political processes, institutions and legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/debates/formal-political-processes-institutions-and-legitimacy/) - The concept of state and legitimacy used in international development has been strongly influenced by Weber (See Section 1). As discussed, donors have tended to prioritise legal-rational legitimacy and, as a result, have understood the process of increasing legitimacy in terms of institution building, service delivery, and policy making. Clements (2008) criticizes this preference for
- [Participation and new technology](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/issues-interventions-and-impacts/participation-and-new-technology/) - Issues Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) can have a transformational impact on poor men and women’s lives, and play an important role in inclusive private sector development. New technology can transform business, support entrepreneurship, and drive innovation and economic growth in the developing world (Yonazi et al. 2012). ICTs can also aid the effectiveness of development
- [Firms and supply chains](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/issues-interventions-and-impacts/firms-and-supply-chains/) - Issues The changing dynamics of global production and trade has major implications for people living in developing countries. Global value chains (GVCs) have become the dominant trading model in many sectors with poor people are being integrated as producers, workers, and consumers into global and regional markets and production processes (See Kaplinsky and Morris 2002;
- [Vouchers](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/evidence/vouchers/) - Voucher schemes aim to support better access to vital public services for previously disadvantaged or excluded groups. However, recent systematic reviews have highlighted that there are very few rigorous studies of the equity impacts of vouchers. Morgan, C., Petrosino, A., & Fronius, T. (2013). A systematic review of the evidence of the impact of school
- [Monitoring and evaluating statebuilding and peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/tools/monitoring-and-evaluating-statebuilding-and-peacebuilding/) - The literature widely notes the importance of setting up monitoring and evaluation systems to facilitate feedback loops and continuous learning to enable reprioritisation and revision of the sequence of activities (World Bank, 2011b). The prioritisation and sequencing of activities often happens during the implementation phase, rather than in the prior planning phase, so the literature
- [Economic foundations](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/challenges/economic-foundations/) - Rebuilding the economy, employment and livelihood opportunities are considered central to statebuilding and peacebuilding activities. Some donors – e.g. USAID (2009) – support starting economic programmes early on in post-conflict reconstruction, emphasising the likelihood of a return to conflict if the economy does not grow and sustain itself. The WDR 2011 suggests prioritising jobs, alongside
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/concepts/)
- [Introduction and evidence base](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/concepts/introduction-and-evidence-base/) - All governments face tough decisions when deciding what reforms to prioritise, and in what sequence to carry them out. These challenges are even more acute in FCAS when everything is urgent and important, and when capacity and resources are low. Decisions about sequencing reforms make up an important part of a wider process of prioritisation.
- [Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/approaches/)
- [Incentivising performance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/approaches/incentivising-performance/) - It is increasingly recognised that improved technical or financial capacity does not automatically translate into improved service delivery performance or better development results. Understanding incentives has been identified as a key variable in any thinking about motivation, behaviour, capacity and institutions involved in service delivery. Central to this is how to incentivise positive change in
- [Regulations and standards](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/issues-interventions-and-impacts/regulations-and-standards/) - Issues Calls for improved regulation of business activity have been prompted by a number of high profile incidences of negative social impact (Utting 2008; Broomhill 2007). Illustrative examples include the use of child labour in clothing manufacturing; concern for the relationship between some businesses and security forces (Pitts 2011); and the much documented treatment of
- [What is social protection?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/what-is-social-protection/) - Concepts and definitions Social protection is concerned with protecting and helping those who are poor and vulnerable, such as children, women, older people, people living with disabilities, the displaced, the unemployed, and the sick. There are ongoing debates about which interventions constitute social protection, and which category they fit under, as social protection overlaps with
- [Social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/) - This publication aims to introduce some of the best literature on the definitions, understandings, causes, and impact of social exclusion, as well as how exclusion can be measured and addressed by governments, civil society actors and international organisations. The guide was written by Seema Khan (GSDRC), in close collaboration with Professor Frances Stewart (Centre for
- [Political and institutional drivers of delivery](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/concepts/political-and-institutional-drivers-of-delivery/) - Over the past decade in particular, there has been growing realisation that politics determines the distribution and performance of public services. Often the main barriers to inclusive or high quality service delivery are political and institutional. These include weak state capacity or commitment to delivery, elite capture, poor incentives of front-line workers, policy incoherence, and an
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/executive-summary/) - Donor agencies are paying increasing attention to how private sector development (PSD) can be leveraged to support poverty reduction and sustainable, equitable and inclusive economic growth. This topic guide synthesises the most recent evidence on the social impacts of private sector development work, documenting emerging approaches and lessons learned. The private sector incorporates all economic
- [Normative frameworks and UK instruments](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/normative-frameworks-and-uk-instruments/) - Principles and guidelines OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises The OECD’s Guidelines are recommendations covering all areas of business ethics, including steps to obey the law, observe international standards, and respond to societal expectations (OECD 2011). ILO core labour conventions The ILO’s Governing Body has identified eight ‘fundamental conventions’ that cover subjects that are considered fundamental
- [Women, girls and private sector development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/women-girls-and-private-sector-development/) - Issues Increasing women’s control over decisions that affect their lives is widely acknowledged as central to combating poverty. Investment in women has been shown to have significant knock-on development effects, as women spend additional income on the health and well-being of their families. However, at both macro and micro levels, women’s economic participation is hampered
- [Monitoring and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/issues-interventions-and-impacts/monitoring-and-evaluation/) - Approaches Monitoring and evaluation in cross-cutting private sector development The Donor Committee for Enterprise Development (DCED) has attempted to create a common approach to monitoring and evaluation among aid agencies through the DCED Standards for Results Management. These aim to provide a framework, tools, and incentives to systematically assess programmes working in complex market systems.
- [Business and human rights](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/issues-interventions-and-impacts/business-and-human-rights/) - Issues There is a broad body of evidence showing how some business activity has had detrimental impacts on human rights, particularly in less economically developed countries. Case studies examples highlight, for instance, violations in labour rights and the role businesses have played in fuelling conflict. All aspects of human rights are potentially relevant to businesses.
- [Market development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/issues-interventions-and-impacts/market-development/) - Issues Functioning market systems, in which buyers and sellers exchange goods and services, are a central organising principle of successful economies. They can stimulate competition, place pressure on producers to improve products, and in turn offer better value for consumers. Markets are particularly important for poor people, who typically experience weaker informal networks and inadequate
- [Key social issues relating to private sector development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/key-social-issues-relating-to-private-sector-development/) - Private sector development (PSD) approaches seeks to catalyse private investment that benefits poor men and women, directly and indirectly. The private sector is involved in all aspects of development; from job creation and education to financial services and the delivery of health care. As well as creating a significant proportion of jobs, private enterprises produce
- [Issues, interventions and impacts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/the-social-impact-of-private-sector-development/issues-interventions-and-impacts/)
- [Human rights](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/) - This topic guide provides an introduction to the interactions and links between human rights and international development. Human rights are increasingly visible in international development language, policies and programmes. Human rights, and the principles they are based on, are argued to improve the effectiveness of development programmes. But beyond that, a human rights framework is
- [Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict/) - Conflict is inherent in all societies and arises when two or more groups believe their interests are incompatible. ‘Conflict’ is not, however, interchangeable with ‘violence’. Non-violent resolution is possible when individuals and groups have trust in their governing structures, society and institutions to manage incompatible interests. Conflict becomes a problem when this trust and respective
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/executive-summary/) - Concepts and definitions Absolute poverty has fallen substantially over the last 30 years, with most of this reduction attributable to rapid economic growth in developing countries. However, the recognition that economic growth often does not meet the needs of the poor has stimulated the current debate on the need for inclusive growth. Economic growth in
- [Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/outcomes/)
- [Rights monitoring and indicators](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-monitoring-and-indicators/) - If international rights commitments are to have genuine impacts for individuals, action must be taken to ensure that duty bearers fulfil their responsibilities to protect and promote these rights. Rights monitoring of programmes and projects is also essential for assessing the effectiveness of rights-based approaches or ensuring that other development interventions are compatible with the
- [Rights, conflict and fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-conflict-and-fragile-states/) - There are complex relationships between rights and violent conflict, and between rights and fragile states. There is currently considerable donor interest in this area, but work remains exploratory. Where groups are socially excluded through persistent denial of their rights, evidence suggests this can act as a cause of violent conflict. In turn, conflicts cause denials
- [Rights, groups and discrimination](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-groups-and-discrimination/) - Denials or violations of rights tend to be based on social exclusion and discrimination. Social exclusion occurs where particular individuals or groups are excluded by (or adversely incorporated into) mainstream society from participating fully in economic, social and political life. In order to combat this, increasing attention is being paid to how to facilitate greater
- [Rights and education, justice, social protection and the environment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-and-education-justice-social-protection-and-the-environment/) - What is the relation between human rights, rights-based approaches and education, justice and the environment? How do human rights perspectives influence approaches to social protection as a preventative, protective, promotive and transformative set of interventions? Much of the literature concerning these links offers donor policy statements, guidance and advocacy papers arguing that a rights-based approach
- [Rights and health, water and sanitation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-and-health-water-and-sanitation/) - The links between human rights, right-based approaches and a selection of sectors and themes are increasingly playing a guiding role in sector policy debates. Rights perspectives are used as both a diagnostic tool and a policy and programmatic response. The burgeoning literature on human rights and a number of health, water and sanitation issues include
- [Rights and migration, livelihoods, housing, land and property](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-and-migration-livelihoods-housing-land-and-property/) - This section provides resources that explore the links between human rights, right-based approaches and a selection of sectors and themes. Many of these documents aim to show how a rights-based approach helps to enhance existing sectoral work. The indivisibility or interdependence of rights also demonstrates that cross-sectoral working is essential for realising rights. A rights-based
- [Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/)
- [Inequality and redistribution](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/outcomes/inequality-and-redistribution/) - There is a significant body of literature on the issue of inequality and redistribution, but it provides conflicting evidence and conclusions, in particular relating to the impact of progressive taxation on economic growth. On the one hand, there is quantitative and qualitative evidence that a shift towards progressive taxes can be harmful to growth (see
- [Statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/outcomes/statebuilding/) - The literature on taxation and statebuilding is primarily theoretical and guidance-oriented, with some supportive case study evidence. There is little literature specifically on taxation in fragile and conflict-affected states, especially in relation to statebuilding. That which does exist highlights the need for taxation to be dealt with during the early stages of post-conflict planning, despite
- [Sustainable revenue and reducing aid and natural resource dependence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/outcomes/sustainable-revenue-and-reducing-aid-and-natural-resource-dependence/) - Due to the relative volatility of aid and natural resource revenues, many experts argue that changing the revenue mix from these revenue sources towards greater domestic non-resource taxation revenue would allow for more financial stability, predictability and control (e.g. Mascagni, Moore, & McCluskey 2014; Von Haldenwang et al., 2013). One econometric analysis finds support for
- [Economic growth](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/outcomes/economic-growth/) - The relationship between taxation and economic growth is complex and contentious. This relationship has been most rigorously studied empirically in high-income countries, especially the US, where there is consensus that general tax increases have dampened growth (McBride, 2012). The smaller body of empirical evidence on the relationship between tax and growth in developing countries is
- [Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/outcomes/)
- [Examples](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/examples/)
- [Impact](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/impact/)
- [Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/evidence/)
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/concepts/)
- [Choosing aid instruments](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/tools/choosing-aid-instruments/) - The choice of aid instrument in FCAS is often based on assessment of: country need and capacity; the perceived urgency of the activity; evaluation of existing delivery channels; the level of consensus on policy priorities (between the donor and the host government); and donor preference and capacity. The choice of aid modality both affects, and
- [Statebuilding and peacebuilding toolkits](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/tools/statebuilding-and-peacebuilding-toolkits/) - There has been a proliferation of statebuilding and peacebuilding toolkits. These (usually theoretical models) aim to shape thinking about the overarching approach donors should take when enacting statebuilding and peacebuilding reforms, and about how the types of reforms will affect dimensions of the state. These toolkits guide strategic decisions over which state functions to prioritise,
- [Analytical tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/tools/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/) - Donors have developed many diagnostic tools to understand the causes of conflict and fragility. These support donor decisions in sequencing as they help diagnose what peacebuilding and statebuilding activities are urgent and/or important, how reforms in one area might impact on other areas, and how reforms might affect state authority, capacity, and legitimacy. Typically recommended
- [Tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/tools/)
- [Cross-cutting trade-offs](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/challenges/cross-cutting-trade-offs/) - Prioritisation in FCAS involves difficult trade-offs (also called dilemmas), which are often tough to measure, predict, and assess against each other. Paris and Sisk (2007, pp. 5-7) identify five overlapping categories of dilemmas for external actors in statebuilding: footprint (how intrusive an activity is); duration (short versus long term activities); participation (what actors to engage
- [Legitimate politics](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/challenges/legitimate-politics/) - Political settlement A political settlement can be understood as: ‘the forging of a common understanding, usually among elites, that their interests or beliefs are served by a particular way of organising political power’ (Whaites, 2008, p. 4). It is a process – and not necessarily formally agreed, or even discussed. Political settlements often extend beyond
- [Core concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/concepts/core-concepts/) - The very idea that it is possible, and preferential, to sequence reform areas is controversial. Non-linear, complex development trajectories The literature increasingly notes that development is non-linear and complex (e.g. Rihani, 2002). Recurring civil wars have also undermined the idea that movement from violence to sustained security is linear (World Bank, 2011b). Despite this, the
- [Prioritising state functions: ‘survival’ and ‘expected’ functions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/challenges/prioritising-state-functions-survival-and-expected-functions/) - There is consensus in the literature that a resilient state must be able to deliver certain functions which meet citizens’ needs and expectations. But there is much debate about what these functions should be, and whether it is possible to establish a hierarchy among them. DFID and other donors distinguish between state ‘survival’ functions and
- [Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/challenges/)
- [Supplements](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/supplements/)
- [Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/)
- [Impact](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/impact/)
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/concepts/)
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/summary/)
- [Private sector](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/private-sector/) - Recognising that private sector companies are not neutral when operating in conflict contexts, Anderson and her colleagues adapted many of the do no harm principles to the private sector. Companies can have unintended negative effects on conflicts by altering the distribution of economic benefits, upsetting existing cultural and societal relations and/or generating negative externalities, such
- [Donor approaches and resources](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/donor-approaches-and-resources/) - Multilateral donor approaches and tools Asian Development Bank (ADB) ADB. (2012). A peacebuilding tool for a conflict-sensitive approach to development: A pilot initiative in Nepal. Manila: Asian Development Bank (ADB). See full text Department for International Development (DFID) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) Huntington, D. (2005). A guidebook to safe and effective development
- [NGO guidance and toolkits](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/ngo-guidance-and-toolkits/) - The following two resources offer a holistic look at the principles of conflict sensitivity, frameworks, and practical guidance on conflict analysis, conflict sensitivity planning and implementation. Conflict Sensitivity Consortium. (2012). How to guide to conflict sensitivity. London: The Conflict Sensitivity Consortium. Drawing on the consortium of NGOs’ experience in applying conflict sensitivity, this how to
- [Monitoring and evaluating conflict sensitivity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/monitoring-and-evaluating-conflict-sensitivity/) - Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is important in determining how accurately initial conflict analysis has been reflected in programming and provides the space for updating analysis and adapting interventions such that they comply with conflict sensitive principles (UNDG-ECHA, 2013). Provisions for M&E should be included early on in the design of interventions. There must be flexibility
- [Gender and conflict sensitivity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/gender-and-conflict-sensitivity/) - Development, humanitarian, peacebuilding and statebuilding interventions should not only be conflict sensitive but also gender sensitive. This requires context-specific analysis of gender relations, looking for example at: how men, women, girls and boys are affected differently by conflict and how they may seek to resolve conflict differently; how gender inequalities may exacerbate tensions; and how
- [Peace and conflict impact assessment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/peace-and-conflict-impact-assessment/) - Peace and conflict impact assessment (PCIA), first formulated by Kenneth Bush, is a means of anticipating and evaluating the impacts of development projects on structures and processes that (1.) strengthen prospects for peaceful coexistence and decrease the likelihood of violence; and (2.) increase the likelihood that conflict will become violent (Bush 1998). While similar to
- [Aid for peace](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/aid-for-peace/) - Many approaches and tools for Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) have since been developed by different organisations. While the objectives have remained largely the same, the approaches differ and are not necessarily based on the original concept. The ‘Aid for Peace’ approach comprises a set of unified and inclusive methodologies and a sequence of
- [Do no harm](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/do-no-harm/) - Reychler (2006) highlights the following ways for organisations to improve their conflict sensitivity: Reflective measures, whereby organisations at the headquarters level and individual staff make explicit their theories and thinking about conflict, violence and peacebuilding. This allows for external actors to understand the assumptions and attitudes that they and others have that will feed into
- [Initiatives to stop harmful practices against women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/approaches-interventions-and-tools/initiatives-to-stop-harmful-practices-against-women-and-girls/) - Donor support to stop persistent harmful practices against women and girls includes reforming formal rules and transforming social norms. Key resource on gender issues The GSDRC Topic Guide on Gender introduces some of the best recent literature on a range of gender issues and highlights major critical debates. There is a section on gender-based violence
- [Inclusive public sector reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/approaches-interventions-and-tools/inclusive-public-sector-reform/) - While mainstream public sector reforms have tended to ignore gender, diversity or other social inclusion issues (Goetz, 2008: 18; Scott, 2011: 11, 24), donors have supported initiatives specifically aimed to improve the inclusiveness of public sector institutions. Government agencies for excluded people and groups A widely-used strategy for making government institutions more inclusive has been
- [Inclusive legal and regulatory frameworks](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/approaches-interventions-and-tools/inclusive-legal-and-regulatory-frameworks/) - Legal and regulatory frameworks can support inclusive state-society relations. Rights-based anti-discrimination legislation Rights-based legislation is the formal mechanism through which citizens can demand rights (DFID, 2010b; Kabeer, 2010). Examples of inclusive legislative institutions include India’s Right to Information Law, and constitutional reforms on citizen participation in Brazil (DFID, 2010b: 59). Key resource on rights-based approaches
- [Analysing and measuring inclusive institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/approaches-interventions-and-tools/analysing-and-measuring-inclusive-institutions/) - Strengthening inclusive institutions involves transforming power relations and incentives. Several tools are available to understand how power is exercised, and the relationships between formal and informal institutions, actors and organisations in society. Tools for analysing institutions Political economic analysis: see GSDRC Topic Guide on Political Economy Analysis (Mcloughlin, 2012); How To Note: Political Economy Analysis
- [Emerging lessons](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/approaches-interventions-and-tools/emerging-lessons/) - Recent analysis identifies the following broad lessons on how to support inclusive institutions: Analysing institutions: There are missed opportunities to support inclusive institutions where practitioners do not analyse how institutions are enabling or constraining the inclusion of marginalised people and groups. Development practitioners, who work on institutions in many different ways across diverse sectors, often
- [Monitoring and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/monitoring-and-evaluation/) - Page contents Introduction Gender-sensitive indicators Global gender indices Introduction It is essential to monitor and evaluate the outcomes of both gender-focused and -mainstreamed development interventions and policies. This can provide crucial information for adjusting programmes and activities in order to better achieve gender equality related goals, and in order to know if and when such
- [Gender and climate change](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-and-climate-change/) - Page contents Introduction Gendered impacts of climate change Climate change mitigation Adaptation strategies Disaster preparedness and risk reduction Further resources Introduction The world’s poor are disproportionately affected by climate change and natural disasters. Climate change affects women and men differently. Women and girls face particular vulnerabilities resulting from cultural norms and their lower socioeconomic status
- [Gender, statebuilding and peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-statebuilding-and-peacebuilding/) - Page contents Introduction Development and reconstruction interventions DDR and security sector reform Transitional justice For women’s citizenship and state-society relations, please see GSDRC's Topic Guide Supplement on State-Society Relations and Citizenship in Situations of Conflict and Fragility Introduction Key priorities for post-conflict statebuilding and peacebuilding include establishing political governance, ensuring security, justice and the rule
- [Gender in fragile and conflict-affected environments](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-environments/) - Page contents: Introduction International engagement in fragile and conflict-affected environments Gender and violent conflict Gendered impact of violent conflict Humanitarian interventions Peacekeeping and peace support operations Introduction Fragility and conflict affect women, men, boys and girls differently. It is widely acknowledged that fragility most negatively affects the poorest and the most vulnerable groups in society,
- [Gender and governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-and-governance/) - Page contents Introduction Women’s formal participation and representation Leadership and participation Gender-responsive budgeting Further resources Introduction The participation of women and men in formal and informal decision-making structures varies greatly between countries, but is generally in favour of men. Institutional as well as cultural, economic and societal factors limit women’s opportunities and abilities to participate
- [Gender-based violence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-based-violence/) - Page contents Introduction Costs and consequences of GBV Female infanticide Harmful traditional practices Domestic violence Sexual violence Human trafficking Addressing GBV Further resources Introduction Gender based violence (GBV) is violence targeted at individuals or groups on the basis of their gender. While research suggests that a significant proportion of women worldwide will at some point
- [Gender and human development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-and-human-development/) - Page contents Introduction Health services Education Social protection Introduction Gender, poverty and the delivery of basic services, such as healthcare, education and social protection, are closely interwoven. The delivery of public services is essential for helping women and men to reach their full potential and realise their human rights. Recent investments in human capital endowments
- [Legal framework and access to justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/legal-framework-and-access-to-justice/) - Page contents: Introduction: legal framework for women's rights and access to justice International legal frameworks Other relevant international instruments Access to justice Introduction: legal framework for women's rights and access to justice Women’s subordinate position in society is reflected in many national legal systems. Women and girls often face discrimination with regard to family law,
- [Understanding gender](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/understanding-gender/) - Page contents: Introduction What is gender and why does it matter? Gender relations and status in the household Intersection of gender and other forms of discrimination Masculinities Gender analysis and mainstreaming Further resources Introduction Gender is an important consideration in development. It is a way of looking at how social norms and power structures impact
- [Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/challenges/)
- [Themes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/themes/)
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/safety-security-and-justice/concepts/)
- [Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/challenges/)
- [Resources and references](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/concepts/resources-and-references/) - Key legal resources and web links International humanitarian law The ICRC 's Treaty Database (1865–current) Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977: Protocol I, Protocol II ICRC (2012). Summary of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and their Additional Protocols: In Brief. Geneva: ICRC ICRC Commentary on the Geneva
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/concepts/)
- [Participatory tools and approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/measuring-results/participatory-tools-and-approaches/) - Page contents The case for participatory M&E Challenges in using participatory approaches Participatory tools: case studies Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) has typically been led by outside experts, measuring performance against pre-set indicators and using procedures and tools designed without the participation of key stakeholders such as the programmes’ intended beneficiaries. Evaluations in particular, because they
- [The role of communication](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/the-role-of-communication/) - Page contents Communication for development Communication and the governance agenda Does communication matter for good governance? Communication structures and processes Public opinion and the public sphere The communication functions of government The role of the media in democratic governance Evidence of the impact of communication on governance and development Further resources Communication for development The
- [Concepts and definitions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/concepts-and-definitions/) - There is broad agreement amongst academics, donors and practitioners that the substantial decline in absolute poverty over the last three decades has been due to rapid economic growth (Dollar, Kleineberg and Kraay, 2013; Commission on Growth and Development, 2008). However, the current emphasis on inclusive growth stems from a recognition that prioritising economic growth alone
- [Decentralisation and local government](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/decentralisation-and-local-government/) - Estimates suggest that decentralisation is being pursued in over 80% of developing countries worldwide. For many people, local government is the part of government that most directly impacts on their lives, particularly via the provision of services like water, sanitation, and primary education and healthcare. Further resources The following resources were included in GSDRC's Gateway
- [Disaster resilience on the international agenda](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/concepts/disaster-resilience-on-the-international-agenda/) - Resilience has had a long multi-disciplinary history. Since its origins in the 19th century study of materials, resilience has been used in psychology (from the 1940s), ecology (from the 1970s), social sciences (from the 1990s), development aid (starting with DFID’s 1999 sustainable livelihoods perspective) and, in the last decade, economics and the study of organisations
- [Challenges, approaches and lessons](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/challenges-approaches-and-lessons/)
- [Integrating disaster resilience in aid operations and policy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/challenges-approaches-and-lessons/integrating-disaster-resilience-in-aid-operations-and-policy/) - This section summarises evidence of what has and has not worked in aid for disaster resilience. A number of references suggest these findings have relevance to aid for resilience in fragile or conflict-affected states (DFID, 2011a, p. 10; GFDRR, 2010, p. 13; Harris et al., 2013, pp. vii-ix; Turnbull et al., 2013, pp. 92-96). Turnbull,
- [Financing resilience](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/challenges-approaches-and-lessons/financing-resilience/) - Disaster resilience is underfunded (DFID, 2011a, p. 16; GFDRR, 2010), and the evidence about the costs and cost-effectiveness of interventions for resilience is limited, but growing. Multi-year funding for disaster resilience is often advocated, especially for protracted crises (e.g. Frankenberger et al., 2012, pp. 10-11). A DFID-commissioned desk-based study examining the value for money of
- [Adapting to different contexts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/challenges-approaches-and-lessons/adapting-to-different-contexts/) - 538Resilience-building may take place in fragile and conflict-affected states, in slow-onset disasters, and in urban areas. Although these contexts can overlap, the literature defines them as distinct and presents findings specific to each. Fragile and conflict-affected states Between 2005 and 2009, an estimated 50% of people affected by disasters from natural hazards lived in fragile
- [Supporting adaptive capacities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/challenges-approaches-and-lessons/supporting-adaptive-capacities/) - Building on community capacities Community resilience does not necessarily require or benefit from outside intervention (Combaz, 2013). Disaster resilience can be self-generated by communities, as illustrated by the case study from Honduras outlined below. There is consensus in the literature that the success of external aid to resilience hinges on the meaningful participation of at-risk
- [Supporting the enabling environment and government action](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/challenges-approaches-and-lessons/supporting-the-enabling-environment-and-government-action/) - Multi-level, multi-stakeholder work on enabling environments Connecting interventions at different scales of action and government is essential (DFID, 2011a, p. 16; IFRC, 2012b, p. 6; Jha et al., 2013, p. 25; Oxfam, 2013; Reaching Resilience, n.d.; Turnbull et al., 2013). For example, Jabeen et al. (2010, p. 418) emphasise that adaptations needed at a certain
- [Analysing and measuring disaster resilience](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/challenges-approaches-and-lessons/analysing-and-measuring-disaster-resilience/) - Several agencies have developed guidance for measuring disaster resilience. One widely-cited example is the ‘characteristics of resilience’ framework, which uses the five dimensions of resilience identified in the Hyogo Framework for Action and suggests a range of indicators for measuring each of them (Twigg, 2009). The indicators are illustrated in the table below. Thematic area
- [Linkages – growth, poverty and inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/linkages-growth-poverty-and-inequality/) - There is a wealth of academic, donor and practitioner literature on the relationships between growth, poverty and inequality, some of which – particularly the two-way relationship between growth and inequality – are highly contested. Knowledge of these relationships is important for practitioners seeking to develop informed policies to foster inclusive growth. Many studies have demonstrated
- [Measuring inclusive growth](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/measuring-inclusive-growth/) - It is evident from the literature that measuring inclusive growth, both at the country and programme level, is challenging. This is due to the absence of a clear and unanimous definition of inclusive growth and the lack of robust data required to measure, monitor and evaluate the implementation of inclusive growth policies and programmes (McKinley,
- [International legal frameworks for humanitarian action](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/) - International legal frameworks for humanitarian action provide guidance on delivering assistance in a variety of challenging contexts. They can also be powerful tools in advocating for, and achieving, the protection of civilians.
- [Public sector institutional reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/) - The public sector is the single most important investment instrument for the state, and improving the way it is managed is critical for development outcomes including service delivery, social protection and private sector regulation. Public sector governance reform involves institutional reform – that is, changing the rules and norms that govern public sector activity. How
- [Inclusive growth](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/) - Absolute poverty has fallen substantially over the last 30 years, with most of this reduction attributable to rapid economic growth in developing countries. Yet growth often does not meet the needs of the poor. Economic growth in the absence of measures to ensure the sustained equitable distribution of its benefits has frequently perpetuated the concentration
- [Tax reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/) - Tax reform can reduce tax evasion and avoidance, and allow for more efficient and fair tax collection that can finance public goods and services. It can make revenue levels more sustainable, and can promote future independence from foreign aid and natural resource revenues. There is increasing recognition of taxation’s role in state-building, in addition to
- [Sequencing reforms in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/) - How can governments in fragile and conflict affected states (FCAS) plan and manage reforms when everything is urgent and important, and when capacity and resources are low? How can external actors strategically support the fulfilment of essential and expected state functions? This Topic Guide provides an overview of the evidence that examines the sequencing of
- [Voice, empowerment and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/) - Voice, empowerment and accountability (VEA) interventions aim to support poor and marginalised people to build the resources, assets, and capabilities they need to exercise greater choice and control over their own development, and to hold decision-makers to account. This guide provides an overview of the best available evidence on the impact of VEA interventions. It
- [Conflict sensitivity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/) - Reflection among aid actors after the devastating genocide in Rwanda led to the realisation that humanitarian and development actors contributed to increasing tensions and exacerbating the conflict. Aid interventions have since been understood to become a part of the context – and in conflict settings, to become part of the conflict. This acknowledgement that aid
- [Ingredients](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/)
- [Policy instruments](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/lessons-and-tools/policy-instruments/) - Policy responses to social exclusion have ranged from legislative measures to tackle discrimination at a national level to civil society movements focused on ensuring a voice for the excluded. Popay, J., Escorel, S., Hernández, M., Johnston, H, Mathieson, J, & Rispel, L. (2008). Tackling Exclusionary Processes. In Understanding and Tackling Social Exclusion (part 3). World
- [Globalisation and social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/dynamics/globalisation-and-social-exclusion/) - Globalisation is an uneven and socially unequal process and there are concerns that global production and trading systems serve to increase poverty and inequality. The following paper highlights the ways in which the exclusionary processes associated with globalisation graft themselves onto local dynamics of social exclusion. Beall, J. (2002). Globalisation and Social Exclusion in Cities:
- [Exclusion as a cause and consequence of violent conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/dynamics/exclusion-as-a-cause-and-consequence-of-violent-conflict/) - Social exclusion as a cause of violent conflict There are close links between social exclusion and violent conflict and insecurity, both in terms of causes and consequences. There are now convincing arguments that some forms of social exclusion generate the conditions in which conflict can arise. This can range from civil unrest to violent armed
- [Exclusion based on social status or identity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes/exclusion-based-on-social-status-or-identity/) - Social exclusion is often the effect of a process of discrimination or ‘othering’ on the basis of cultural, social and/ or racial identity. Such discrimination can generate powerful exclusionary processes. It can be systematic and intentional – resulting from policies which are embedded in the formal institutions of the state, as in the case of
- [Exclusion, rights and citizenship](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes/exclusion-rights-and-citizenship/) - There are clear links between the concept of social exclusion and a rights-based approach to development. Social exclusion analysis can help to identify which groups are being denied access to their rights, and which actors or organisations are blocking their access. A social exclusion analysis is useful even when rights are not on the agenda,
- [Key debates and the concept of ‘social inclusion’](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/definitions/key-debates-and-the-concept-of-social-inclusion/) - One critique of social exclusion is that the concept is based on an ‘underlying moral meta-narrative’ which assumes that social inclusion or integration, as the opposite of social exclusion, is inherently good and desirable (Hickey & du Toit, 2007: 3). As a result, efforts to tackle exclusion can often be led by implicit normative assumptions
- [Challenges for international aid](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/lessons-and-tools/challenges-for-international-aid/) - Social exclusion presents various challenges for donors. There is considerable variation amongst developing countries in the availability of information, as well as important contextual differences in terms of the nature of exclusion and if/ how the concept is understood. National level census and survey data and poverty monitoring often fail to provide much information on
- [Tackling social exclusion: approaches, lessons and tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/lessons-and-tools/tackling-social-exclusion-approaches-lessons-and-tools/) - Tackling social exclusion requires a multi-faceted approach to policy and action on a number of fronts. If only one aspect is addressed, success will be unlikely because other aspects of exclusion will prevent effective progress. The first priority is a good scoping exercise to identify the dimensions and causes of exclusion (see ‘Causes of Exclusion’).
- [The conceptual links between exclusion and poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/dynamics/the-conceptual-links-between-exclusion-and-poverty/) - People who are socially excluded are generally also poor, particularly if poverty is defined in a multidimensional way. There are, however, several key differences between the concepts of poverty and social exclusion: (i) the majority of people in a society may be poor, (i.e. suffer from adverse incorporation) but it does not make sense to
- [Social exclusion as a process](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/dynamics/social-exclusion-as-a-process/) - Social exclusion is a process. It can involve the systematic denial of entitlements to resources and services, and the denial of the right to participate on equal terms in social relationships in economic, social, cultural or political arenas. Exclusionary processes can occur at various levels – within and between households, villages, cities, states, and globally.
- [Exclusion based on migration](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes/exclusion-based-on-migration/) - Migration can act both as a way of moving out of poverty, and a cause of social exclusion. For example, foreign remittances can help receiving households to increase their income and consumption levels, as well as their capabilities to face socioeconomic shocks. However, rural-urban migrants for example, often do not benefit from the same political,
- [Exclusion based on spatial factors](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes/exclusion-based-on-spatial-factors/) - Spatial inequalities include disparities between rural and urban areas, and also between geographically advantaged and disadvantaged areas. Spatial disadvantage may result from the remoteness of a location which makes it physically difficult for its inhabitants to participate in broader socio-economic processes. Or it may operate through the segregation of urban environments and the ‘subcultures’ of
- [Tools for assessing exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/identifying-exclusion/tools-for-assessing-exclusion/) - Many donor measures are concerned with mapping the processes of exclusion and identifying the excluded in a given country: an important task when such groups may previously have been excluded from development interventions. The DFID Gender and Social Exclusion ‘How to’ Note below also aims to identify the implications of exclusion for economic development and
- [Multidimensionality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/definitions/multidimensionality/) - Social exclusion is multidimensional, and can encompass a lack of access to employment, legal redress and markets; a lack of political voice; and poor social relationships. Authors therefore argue that it is not enough to examine these issues individually, and that the links between them must be explored. De Haan, A. (1999). Social Exclusion: Towards
- [What are people excluded from?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/definitions/what-are-people-excluded-from/) - The current notion of ‘social exclusion’ originated in European debates in the 1980s, where there has tended to be a greater emphasis on spatial exclusion. There is also a policy focus on those living in ‘deprived areas’, where poor housing, inadequate social services, weak political voice and lack of decent work all combine to create
- [Causes and forms of social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes/)
- [Using non-income measures](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/identifying-exclusion/using-non-income-measures/) - While income poverty is an important indicator of social exclusion, it is not the only one. There are various non-monetary and subjective indicators, which should be explored at the cross-sectional level and also longitudinally. McKenzie, D. J. (2005). Measuring Inequality with Asset Indicators. Journal of Population Economics, 18(2), 229-260. Are household infrastructure, building materials and
- [Definitions and understandings of social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/definitions/)
- [Overview](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/overview/) - Social exclusion has been defined by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) as ‘a process by which certain groups are systematically disadvantaged because they are discriminated against on the basis of their ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, caste, descent, gender, age, disability, HIV status, migrant status or where they live. Discrimination occurs in public
- [Supporting social accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/supporting-social-accountability/) - Much of the recent literature on social accountability calls for donors to combine action to address accountability failures within government and between elites. A recent meta-review concluded that information provision alone is likely to be ineffective without corresponding government enforcement activities (O’Meally, 2013). Effective social accountability arguably requires four enabling conditions: organised capable citizen groups,
- [Communication and governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/) - This guide introduces some of the best recent literature on the role of communication in governance. It highlights the major critical debates surrounding the relationship between communication, government accountability and responsiveness, and state-society relations in developing countries. It is intended primarily as a reference for policymakers, and highlights practical guidance, lessons learned and case studies
- [Inclusive institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/) - Institutions are the formal and informal rules and norms that structure citizens’ rights, entitlements, opportunities and voice. How can policymakers and practitioners support inclusive institutions to promote development that ‘leaves no-one behind’? What do we know about what has – or hasn't – worked, and where? This Topic Guide synthesises the evidence, debates and approaches
- [Drivers and constraints](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/drivers-and-constraints/)
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/concepts/)
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/disaster-resilience-summary/) - Over the past decade, there has been an increase in the frequency and severity of hazards such as droughts, flooding and cyclones. The impacts of disasters on development, poverty and vulnerability have led to calls for improving disaster resilience – meaning the capacity of households, communities and countries to cope with and adapt to the
- [The role of civil society and social movements](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/lessons-and-tools/the-role-of-civil-society-and-social-movements/) - Civil society organisations (CSOs) can provide both immediate relief and longer-term transformative change – by defending collective interests and increasing accountability; providing solidarity mechanisms and promoting participation; influencing decision making; directly engaging in service delivery; and challenging prejudice. In this way, excluded groups can be effective drivers of their own change by forming or participating
- [Subjective wellbeing](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/impact/subjective-wellbeing/) - The psychological aspects of exclusion are also important. These include the absence of power, voice and independence, and vulnerability to exploitation and humiliation. The following article highlights the importance of a capacity for agency that allows poor people to improve the quality of their relationships and to secure respect and dignity for themselves. The paper
- [Violence and insecurity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/impact/violence-and-insecurity/) - When individuals or groups, and particularly youth, feel excluded from power structures, and deprived of legitimate outlets to express their grievances, violence can provide an opportunity for them to have a voice and to gain control over their own lives. Hilker, M., & Fraser, E. (2009). Youth Exclusion, Violence, Conflict and Fragile States. London: Social
- [Exclusion, growth and poverty](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/impact/exclusion-growth-and-poverty/) - There is some evidence that economic growth is positively related to equality. One explanation for this is that with more equality there is more investment in education, health and nutrition. There is also some evidence to show that policies designed to tackle social exclusion can lead to more equitable forms of growth as excluded groups
- [Income inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/impact/income-inequality/) - Social exclusion can lead to and result from disparities in income distribution, with the wealthiest segments of a country’s population receiving the greatest proportion of its national income. Income inequality arises from inequities in the distribution of assets such as land, credit and education. Barron, M. (2008). Exclusion and Discrimination as Sources of Inter-Ethnic Inequality
- [Health and education](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/impact/health-and-education/) - The greater poverty of socially excluded groups often translates into poorer levels of health and education, particularly when their poverty is combined with remoteness and lack of infrastructure and social services. Kabeer, N. (2005). Social Exclusion: Concepts, Findings and Implications for the MDGs (Paper commissioned as background for the Social Exclusion Policy Paper). London: DFID.
- [The impact of social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/impact/the-impact-of-social-exclusion/) - The existence of social exclusion makes it difficult to achieve particular social objectives, such as reducing poverty and malnutrition, because there are often hidden barriers to reaching those who are socially excluded. Social exclusion also generally involves exclusion in more than one dimension, and these can reinforce each other. For example, a combination of economic
- [Introduction](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/introduction/) - The recognition that inequality affects the impact of growth on poverty reduction has led to a broadening consensus among policymakers that looking beyond a ‘growth-first’ agenda will be necessary to deliver inclusive growth in developing countries. The Asian Development Bank’s Strategy 2020 (Zhuang, 2010) is indicative of this approach, and defines three policy pillars of
- [Productive jobs and labour](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/productive-jobs-and-labour/) - There is clear consensus among donors, practitioners and academics that creating productive employment is central to fostering inclusive growth. The 2013 World Development Report (World Bank, 2013) states that countries should pursue an explicit jobs strategy rather than rely on growth related policies to create jobs. This is because growth policies may not take into
- [Fiscal policy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/fiscal-policy/) - Fiscal policy encompasses taxation and government spending, and is the most direct tool that governments have to undertake redistributive policies (IMF, 2014). The ADB (2014) has found that government expenditure is a more effective fiscal tool than taxation as it can target low-income groups directly, and that government investment in the human capital of the
- [Infrastructure](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/infrastructure/) - Infrastructure spending has been viewed as a prerequisite for economic development since Adam Smith, and most empirical studies have found that infrastructure has a significant positive effect on growth. Many studies take it as a given that, through its role in job creation and improvements in productivity, improvements in infrastructure will also lead to inclusive
- [Economic transformation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/economic-transformation/) - Studies agree that productivity enhancing structural transformations, which shift labour and resources from agriculture to more productive economic activities, are necessary components for sustained economic growth. Yet structural change can also hinder productivity and growth in developing countries, particularly in the context of an increasingly globalised world economy. For example, McMillan and Rodrik (2011) find
- [Human development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/human-development/) - Investment in human capital is recognised as fundamental for inclusive growth. Labour is poor people’s main asset, so good levels of health and education enable poor men and women both to participate in and profit from economic growth when it occurs (Duflo, 2011; CAFOD, 2014). Further, according to the broad definition of inclusive growth, good
- [Institutions and the politics of inclusive growth](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/institutions-and-the-politics-of-inclusive-growth/) - The design and implementation of policies to promote inclusive growth will not take place in a vacuum. Khan (2012) argues that the political settlement, the ‘combination of institutions and organisations that can reproduce itself over time’, defines the boundaries of possible change in any given society. Policies that succeed in fostering inclusive growth will therefore
- [Other online resources](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/other-online-resources/) - This page provides links to selected organisations involved in promoting justice internationally. Amnesty International (AI): a worldwide movement of people who campaign for internationally recognised human rights. Child Rights Information Network (CRIN) Development Research Centre on Citizenship, Participation & Accountability Eldis - the Eldis governance resource guide includes a section on human rights European Country of
- [Human rights legal framework](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/human-rights-legal-framework/) - In international law, human rights obligations are those that states have undertaken by signing treaties, which are then ratified by national parliaments and enacted through changing the state's practice. The 1948 Universal Declaration on Human Rights is by far the most widely accepted definition of human rights, encompassing civil and political as well as economic, social
- [Rights and private sector, growth, labour, PFMA and information](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-and-private-sector-growth-labour-pfma-and-information/) - Human rights are not only linked with service delivery but also have significant implications for the private sector, growth, labour, public financial management (PFMA) and access to information. A number of resources explore the links between human rights, right-based approaches and these areas. They include donor guidance and policy statements, academic research, and advocacy papers.
- [Rights-based approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/rights-based-approaches/) - The adoption of rights-based approaches (RBAs) in development work – that is, approaches that are informed and guided by the framework of international human rights law, and the values that underpin it – has had a significant impact on the ways in which development agencies operate. RBAs emphasise the centrality of power relations, and the
- [Donor policy and practice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/human-rights/donor-policy-and-practice/) - Donors’ understandings of and approaches to human rights vary, although they often have core themes and principles in common. Policies range from rights-based approaches emphasising power and participation, to approaches that use rights implicitly. Some donors focus on a wide spectrum of rights, while others emphasise particular types (such as political or legal rights) or
- [Relationship between gender and conflict: The evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/relationship-between-gender-and-conflict-the-evidence/)
- [Assessing impact](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/approaches-tools-and-interventions/assessing-impact/) - The current lack of monitoring and evaluation of impact of interventions on gender-related outcomes, and consequent absence of evidence to support gender-responsive programming, has made it difficult to make the case that programming must consider the needs of men and women in conflict, conflict prevention, peacebuilding and statebuilding (Anderlini, 2011). It has also made it
- [Negotiating risks](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/approaches-tools-and-interventions/negotiating-risks/) - Research has highlighted some risks – or potential unintended consequences – that are associated with incorporating gender into conflict-related work. One is a backlash against women and girls where donors fail to take into account the impact of gender equality programmes on men (OECD, 2013a). In addition, collecting gender equality data in FCAS can present
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/summary/executive-summary/) - This topic guide responds to the need for deeper understanding of how gender and conflict interrelate in fragile and conflict-affected situations (FCAS), and of gender-sensitive approaches in such contexts. Drawing on a literature review, it highlights key texts and identifies the strength of evidence alongside gaps in evidence. It summarises the evidence on the role
- [International policy frameworks](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/concepts-debates-and-frameworks/international-policy-frameworks/) - A number of normative policy frameworks at the international and national level promote gender equality, including in FCAS. Security Council Resolutions 1325 and 1820 aim to empower and protect women in situations of violence and insecurity. They incorporate both general protections for women (based on the similarities between men and women) and special protections (based
- [Current debates and trends in gender and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/concepts-debates-and-frameworks/current-debates-and-trends-in-gender-and-conflict/) - There is debate about whether international policy frameworks on gender and conflict reinforce stereotypes of the roles of men and women. Some experts argue that certain laws generalise women as victims and focus excessively on the protection of women (Barrow, 2010). There is also a critique that the Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda’s focus
- [Addressing gender inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/approaches-tools-and-interventions/addressing-gender-inequality/) - Supporting women’s economic empowerment A review of small-scale projects found that women’s economic gains tend to be higher where men have been particularly severely affected by conflict (O’Connell, 2011). However, even where women assume new economic roles during conflict, these do not necessarily improve gender relations afterwards, especially where men continue to control economic resources,
- [Gender-sensitive peacebuilding and statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/approaches-tools-and-interventions/gender-sensitive-peacebuilding-and-statebuilding/) - A gender-sensitive approach implies recognising that peacebuilding, statebuilding and conflict are ‘gendered’ processes in two senses: men and women are affected differently by conflict, and gender roles shape statebuilding outcomes (OECD, 2013a). Peacebuilding and statebuilding processes present opportunities to embed gender equality goals in emerging political settlements and to achieve legal changes to eliminate gender-based
- [Impact of conflict on gender](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/relationship-between-gender-and-conflict-the-evidence/impact-of-conflict-on-gender/) - A range of factors, including ethnicity, age, and occupational group, may affect how people experience conflict, more so than differences between men and women. Nevertheless, there is consistent evidence that women, men, girls, and boys experience conflict differently and that conflict has differential impacts on men and women. Gender-based violence (GBV) and violence against women
- [Why gender matters in FCAS](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/concepts-debates-and-frameworks/why-gender-matters-in-fcas/) - Two main rationales for the integration of gender sensitive approaches in fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS) recur across the literature. First, the normative argument notes the intrinsic importance of gender equality for the achievement of human rights (Greenberg & Zuckerman, 2009). Second, the instrumentalist argument emphasises the value of gender equality for conflict prevention, conflict
- [Gender-sensitive conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/approaches-tools-and-interventions/gender-sensitive-conflict-analysis/) - The inclusion of gender perspectives into conflict analysis can provide a more nuanced and effective understanding of conflict factors, actors and dynamics. Such analysis can highlight the gendered nature of the causes and impact of conflict, providing a deeper understanding of the structural issues that need to be addressed through peacebuilding (Anderlini, 2006). Gender variables
- [Lessons and tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/lessons-and-tools/)
- [Impact](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/impact/)
- [Important dynamics in social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/dynamics/)
- [The links between exclusion and inequality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/dynamics/the-links-between-exclusion-and-inequality/) - The concepts of social exclusion and inequality are closely linked. Unequal societies in which certain groups are discriminated against can lead to exclusion. Likewise, social exclusion involves inequality. Unlike vertical inequalities, which focus on individuals, horizontal inequalities concern inequalities between groups, as does social exclusion. Both horizontal inequalities and social exclusion are multidimensional, encompassing social,
- [Identifying exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/identifying-exclusion/)
- [Lessons](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/lessons/)
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/concepts/)
- [Political economy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/drivers-and-constraints/political-economy/) - A number of aspects of the political economy in a country can affect disaster resilience. One of them is the regulatory environment, particularly in relation to urban building codes and land use: poor regulations, or poor enforcement of regulations, can create economic and social conditions that put vulnerable groups at greater risks and that are
- [Case studies of politically informed programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/impact/case-studies-of-politically-informed-programming/) - There are few documented examples of the impact of PEA on donor action or development outcomes. While the need for better evidence will remain a key challenge, isolated case studies documenting positive links between thinking and working politically and more effective aid have recently started to emerge. For example, DFID’s SAVI programme in Nigeria has
- [Exclusion based on economic status](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes/exclusion-based-on-economic-status/) - The distribution of resources and the accumulation of wealth is an unequal process, which is based on power relations, the capacity of various groups to lobby for their interests and influence the government’s agenda, and the targeting of government policies. Economic exclusion also refers to the exclusion of workers (either totally or partially) from three
- [Causes and forms of social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes/causes-and-forms-of-social-exclusion/) - Exclusionary processes can have various dimensions: Political exclusion can include the denial of citizenship rights such as political participation and the right to organise, and also of personal security, the rule of law, freedom of expression and equality of opportunity. Bhalla and Lapeyre (1997: 420) argue that political exclusion also involves the notion that the state,
- [Examples of social exclusion analyses](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/identifying-exclusion/examples-of-social-exclusion-analyses/) - The disadvantages faced by the excluded are multidimensional and overlapping. Which of the various dimensions – if any – is most central to the exclusion of a particular group will depend on context. The concept of social exclusion can form the basis for context-specific analysis, and can allow for contesting definitions of integration. So, in
- [Using quantitative and qualitative data](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/identifying-exclusion/using-quantitative-and-qualitative-data/) - Some forms of social exclusion are relatively easy to measure, while others are quite difficult. Many forms of social exclusion are represented by clear divisions between groups, but multiple identities can blur group boundaries, and some excluded groups can be ‘invisible’. For example, it can be difficult to collect information on mobile populations, and some
- [Identifying and measuring social exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/social-exclusion/identifying-exclusion/identifying-and-measuring-social-exclusion/) - The measurement of social exclusion is tied to the definition of social exclusion. Different approaches have been adopted to define social exclusion in developing countries. These include efforts to determine whether people benefit from opportunities or whether they fall below average achievements. They may also be based on preconceived ideas about which groups are excluded
- [Key definitions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/summary/key-definitions/) - Conflict, violence, and organised violence are the use or threat of physical force by groups (civilians, states, social groups). Conflict and violence takes many forms, including outright civil war, large- or small-scale communal conflicts based on regional, ethnic, religious or other groupings, and domestic violence (World Bank, 2011, p. xv). Conflict sensitivity implies understanding conflict
- [Conflict prevention](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/approaches-tools-and-interventions/conflict-prevention/) - Gender-sensitive early warning Incorporating gender into early warning – analysing the differences in men and women’s perceptions of security – can help create a fuller picture of conflict risks. Higher levels of gender equality and women’s physical security are increasingly considered to be important indicators of general stability. Deterioration in women’s security and increases in
- [Infrastructure development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/infrastructure-development/) - Infrastructure projects are generally approached from an engineering perspective. While engineering concerns such as efficiency are important, they should be secondary considerations in a conflict sensitive approach (USIP, 2008). Development actors should be aware of potentially divisive actions such as the risk of elite capture of infrastructure projects (e.g. selecting road alignments or water supply
- [Impact of gender on conflict](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/relationship-between-gender-and-conflict-the-evidence/impact-of-gender-on-conflict/) - Does gender inequality fuel violence? Isolated case studies and cross-national statistical analyses have identified correlations between levels of inequality and propensity to conflict or violence, but they cannot prove causality. A recent review concludes that it remains unclear whether or how gender inequality fuels violence (or whether gender inequality is a proxy for something else
- [Security sector reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/security-sector-reform/) - Safety, security and justice are priorities for citizens and are associated with development outcomes, including the prevention of violent conflict, accountable and effective states, economic growth and service delivery. However, support to security and justice sectors can inadvertently contribute to tensions by exacerbating drivers of conflict, reinforcing patterns of exclusion through unrepresentative reforms, introducing competition
- [Natural resources, climate change and land governance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/natural-resources-climate-change-and-land-governance/) - Natural resource and land management programmes and interventions are becoming increasingly common and are often implemented in situations of open or latent violence. Goddard and Lemke (2013) find, however, that most fail to explicitly incorporate conflict sensitivity. Natural resources can be conflict drivers on their own and can also interact with other conflict drivers (UNDG-ECHA,
- [Stabilisation programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/stabilisation-programming/) - An understanding of context is essential to stabilisation interventions: what is required to stabilise one area depends on what existed before the conflict and also the degree of damage inflicted by the conflict (Dennys, 2013). While the aim of stabilisation interventions should be to provide a foundation for longer-term social, economic and political evolution, Dennys
- [Economic recovery](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/economic-recovery/) - Wealth creation is not sufficient on its own to resolve conflict. Moreover, it can exacerbate tensions and lead to the renewal of conflict if the benefits of economic recovery are perceived to be unevenly distributed (Bray, 2009). Country growth policies and strategies can result in inclusive growth or in benefits that reach only a small
- [Services](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/services/) - Equity in service delivery is essential in conflict contexts and perceptions of distributive bias can contribute to tensions (Slater et al., 2012). McCandless (2012, p. 9) emphasises that ‘if administrative and social services are not administered and delivered in a conflict sensitive manner, they can do more harm than good by reinforcing the horizontal inequalities
- [Key definitions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/concepts/key-definitions/) - Conflict is parties disagreeing and acting on the basis of perceived incompatibilities (How to guide). Conflict (violent) is resort to psychological or physical force to resolve a disagreement (How to guide). Direct violence — war, murder, rape, assault, verbal attacks — is physically experienced violence, but has its roots in cultural and structural violence (Galtung,
- [Humanitarian/emergency response programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/humanitarianemergency-response-programming/) - There has been growing recognition of the interconnected nature of risks associated with natural disasters, conflict and insecurity, and extreme poverty. Donors engaging in humanitarian and development work increasingly emphasise the need to enhance the resilience of communities and livelihoods in order to address fragility, poverty and vulnerability to conflict and disaster. This underscores the
- [Policy frameworks and strategic programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/policy-frameworks-and-strategic-programming/) - Conflict sensitivity applies to all types of work, across humanitarian, development and peacebuilding sectors. Experience indicates that no intervention is neutral in a conflict context (Goldwyn, 2013). Nonetheless, agencies operating in various relevant sectors have failed to consistently apply a conflict sensitive approach to their interventions. This has been the case, for example, in security
- [Context and levels of intervention](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/concepts/context-and-levels-of-intervention/) - Conflict sensitivity applies to a broad range of conflict-prone contexts, ranging from areas of severe violence to situations where underlying tensions have not recently resulted in violence (Brown et al., 2009). Bush (2009) notes that while PCIA was originally developed in the context of militarised conflict, it has since been applied to less or non-militarised
- [The evolution of conflict sensitivity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/concepts/the-evolution-of-conflict-sensitivity/) - Beginning in the mid-1990s, Anderson’s research and the Do No Harm project led the way for the field of conflict sensitivity (see the Do no harm section). In 1998, Kenneth Bush developed the Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) methodology, comparable to environmental or gender impact assessment (see the PCIA section). Both do no harm
- [The origin of conflict sensitivity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/concepts/the-origin-of-conflict-sensitivity/) - The first principle for aid policy makers, identified in the OECD-DAC Guidelines on ‘Helping Prevent Violent Conflict’ (2001, p. 23), is ‘to do no harm and to guard against unwittingly aggravating existing or potential conflicts’, in addition to ‘maximising good’ and strengthening incentives for peace. Now well accepted in the development community, this principle rose
- [Access to information – and its constraints](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/access-to-information-and-its-constraints/) - Page contents Access to information – and its constraints Does transparency matter for good governance? Supporting open information environments Gender and access to information Further resources Access to information – and its constraints Access to information is critical for enabling citizens to exercise their voice, to effectively monitor and hold government to account, and to
- [Media development](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/media-development/) - Page contents Why media development matters Supporting independent news media Professionalising journalism Media literacy Lessons learned in media assistance Monitoring and evaluating media development Gender and media development Further resources Why media development matters The media can be a powerful force for change in both developed and developing countries. In developing countries, it can have
- [Social media](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/social-media/) - Page contents The new communication landscape Social media, the public sphere and social change Social media, information and e-governance Social media in fragile and conflict-affected states Further resources The new communication landscape The communication system of the industrial society was based on mass media, largely television, radio and the print press. Such technologies allow for
- [Communication for social change and transformation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/communication-for-social-change-and-transformation/) - Page contents The role of communication in social change and transformation Participatory communication Social accountability and state-citizen relations Gender relations Cross cultural dialogue and ownership The role of communication in social change and transformation Can the use of communication contribute to social change and transformation? The growing emphasis on participatory, ‘horizontal’ communication - such as
- [Communication for governance reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/communication-and-governance/communication-for-governance-reform/) - Page contents The role of communication in governance reform processes Attitude, opinion and behaviour change Communication and political economy Building stakeholder support for reform Dialogue and deliberation Case studies: using strategic communication in governance reform The role of communication in governance reform processes Can the strategic use of communication increase the success and sustainability of
- [Tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/tools/)
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/executive-summary/) - Tax reform is usually undertaken to improve tax administration or to provide economic or social benefits. This topic guide provides an overview of the limited, but growing, evidence on tax reform in developing countries. There is increasing recognition of taxation’s role in state-building, in addition to greater understanding of its impacts on growth, inequality and
- [Social and economic empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/supplements/social-and-economic-empowerment/) - Page contents Social empowerment Economic empowerment Social empowerment Social empowerment is understood as the process of developing a sense of autonomy and self-confidence, and acting individually and collectively to change social relationships and the institutions and discourses that exclude poor people and keep them in poverty. Poor people’s empowerment, and their ability to hold others
- [Political empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/supplements/political-empowerment/) - Page contents Introduction: social, economic and political empowerment Deepening democracy Decentralisation Transparency and access to information Citizen engagement with policy processes Social movements and coalitions Public participation in service delivery Introduction: social, economic and political empowerment Empowerment and accountability are interrelated, with considerable overlap between them. The empowerment and accountability agenda thus takes an integrated view of
- [Measuring empowerment and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/supplements/measuring-empowerment-and-accountability/) - A major problem with gathering evidence on empowerment and accountability is the difficulty of measurement – and in particular of measuring change. Measurement is made difficult by the broad definitions of ‘empowerment’ and ‘accountability’. Understandings of these concepts vary widely and associated concepts such as ‘voice’ and ‘participation’ present similar problems. Measuring empowerment poses particular
- [Challenges and risks](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/supplements/challenges-and-risks/) - There are considerable challenges involved in supporting people to exercise greater control over their own development. The nature and extent of these will differ according to the social, economic and political context. Certainly, the literature shows that context is all-important when it comes to designing empowerment and accountability interventions. For example, the overall political context
- [Evidence guide](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/summary/evidence-guide/) - What do we know about the impact of VEA interventions? This table (PDF, 500 KB) organises the research and evidence included in this guide into three types of intervention – voice and participation, empowerment, and accountability – and four types of impact: on access to public services, education outcomes, health-related behaviour and outcomes, and on
- [Voice and participation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/impact/voice-and-participation/) - Evidence of the impact of VEA interventions, including on development outcomes, is limited and inconsistent. Much of the empirical research in this area focuses on the effectiveness of VEA initiatives in achieving intermediate outputs (e.g. capacity development, numbers/who participated, service satisfaction), but there remain few rigorous evaluations of broader impacts (e.g. changing norms/attitudes, increased equity,
- [Transparency and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/impact/transparency-and-accountability/) - To date, there is no consensus on whether or how transparency or accountability improves development outcomes. Nevertheless, there is some emerging evidence that certain factors are associated with relative success – for example, it is becoming clear that certain types and channels of information provision are more likely to enable citizens to directly hold service
- [Empowerment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/impact/empowerment/) - Empowerment aims to ensure that development benefits disadvantaged groups, including women, minorities and the poor. Fully capturing the individual and social effects of empowerment interventions is challenging, and to date the evidence base is limited. One isolated study using cross-country panel data recently found that aid has had an intrinsic positive effect on women’s political
- [Key debates: Challenges to aid effectiveness?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/concepts/key-debates-challenges-to-aid-effectiveness/) - VEA emerged as a priority in the international development agenda in the 1990s. Over the past five years in particular, cross-country mixed-methods research has called for aid actors to think politically, understand the role of informal institutions, and act strategically to support more inclusive VEA. Aid interventions have been criticised for previously overlooking deep-rooted inequalities
- [Defining voice, empowerment and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/concepts/defining-voice-empowerment-and-accountability/) - Voice, empowerment and accountability (VEA) is an umbrella term that covers a wide range of ideas about how citizens can express preferences, secure their rights, make demands on the state and ultimately achieve better development outcomes. VEA draws attention to the role of individual agency, power relations, and processes that can enable or constrain citizens’
- [Conceptualising empowerment and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/supplements/conceptualising-voice-and-accountability/) - Page contents Empowerment Accountability The centrality of power Citizenship, rights and participation Transforming relations between citizens and the state Additional resources There is little consensus about the definitions of ‘empowerment’ and ‘accountability’. While there is recognition that the two overlap, empowerment and accountability approaches have been understood and operationalised in a variety of ways. Empowerment
- [VEA in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/vea-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Fragile and conflict-affected contexts are characterised by social fragmentation, low levels of trust, and weak state capacity and/or legitimacy. Civil society may lack leadership and have limited access to information or means of communication (Schouten, 2011). Under these circumstances, mobilising citizens or engaging them in formal accountability mechanisms may be premature, and can be viewed
- [Thinking and working politically](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/thinking-and-working-politically/) - Politics and power relations are frequently cited as determinants of the effectiveness of VEA interventions, yet rigorous evidence on how politics enables or constrains outcomes remains limited. Although aid actors have in recent years acknowledged the need to work politically, this has often not translated into practice. Political economy analysis can in principle help agencies
- [Supporting gender equality](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/supporting-gender-equality/) - Gender equality is a core goal of all VEA interventions. A recent comparative analysis of 14 countries found that a combination of factors support gender equity in politics and policy-making, including elite support and allies inside the state (Nazneen & Mahmud, 2012). Some evidence indicates that supporting women’s political inclusion requires going beyond technical tools
- [Strengthening voice and participation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/strengthening-voice-and-participation/) - Evidence suggests the success of participatory and community-driven development projects depends on the degree to which communities are willing and able to mobilise, and the state’s commitment to responding to citizens' concerns (Mansuri & Rao, 2013). Citizen engagement may also depend on the opportunity costs of participation, which can be especially high for poor people.
- [Facilitating collective action](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/facilitating-collective-action/) - Aid actors have generally positioned themselves as ‘doers’ of VEA, but this has achieved limited impact and at times even weakened local capacities for action (Booth, 2012). A small body of emerging research is beginning to illustrate that shifting to an enabling role, with a focus on collective action and local problem-solving, might be more
- [Assessing impact](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/assessing-impact/) - Rigorously measuring the impact of VEA is challenging: while inputs, outputs and results may be monitorable, longer-term outcomes that involve complex causal chains often go uncaptured by conventional M&E frameworks (DFID, 2011). Recent secondary reviews have shown that VEA programmes often have poorly articulated or unrealistic theories of change, which can hamper the quality of
- [Aid and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/approaches/aid-and-accountability/) - Development agencies increasingly emphasise country ownership and alignment. However, critics charge that aid accountability has remained largely within the aid system itself, rather than between donors and recipients (Eyben, 2008). Improving aid accountability to disadvantaged populations might require engaging in more critical self-reflection, relinquishing some power, shifting relations from competition to cooperation, and adjusting actions
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/voice-empowerment-and-accountability/summary/executive-summary/) - Voice, empowerment and accountability (VEA) interventions aim to support poor and marginalised people to build the resources, assets, and capabilities they need to exercise greater choice and control over their own development, and to hold decision-makers to account. This guide provides an overview of the best available evidence on the impact of VEA interventions. It
- [What is tax reform and why does it matter?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/concepts/what-is-tax-reform-and-why-does-it-matter/) - Tax reform is generally undertaken to improve the efficiency of tax administration and to maximise the economic and social benefits that can be achieved through the tax system. A tax itself can be defined as ‘a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by a state, or the
- [What are the current debates on the agenda for tax reform?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/concepts/what-are-the-current-debates-on-the-agenda-for-tax-reform/) - The key debates on tax reform relate to the development outcomes of tax reform, the tax mix to achieve these outcomes, and whether there should be greater focus on taxation at the local, national or international level. In addition to the revenue raising capacity of taxation, emerging literature emphasises its impacts on growth, state building,
- [Understanding and working with the political economy context](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/understanding-and-working-with-the-political-economy-context/) - Tax reform can encounter strong resistance from vested interests, especially from elites who may bear the greatest burden of taxation. Political economy analysis can help to identify opposition to reform from powerful elites and lobbies (de Souza, 2013), and to identify ‘windows of opportunity’ for reform such as those that can occur during periods of
- [Taxing the informal sector](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/taxing-the-informal-sector/) - The informal sector consists of firms and individuals who are not fully registered and regulated, and therefore not in the standard tax net. Taxing the informal sector can be through registration and formalisation to push these firms and individuals into the tax net, or it can be through taxing them indirectly. In most countries there
- [Monitoring and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/monitoring-and-evaluation/) - Tax reform monitoring and evaluation (M&E), both for project evaluation and for benchmarking tax agencies, has tended to use ad hoc mixtures of resources and indicators, as there is little specific guidance on M&E for tax reform. Past capacity development efforts have lacked rigorous benchmarking components (Oxford Policy Management, 2006) and a key challenge is
- [Local taxation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/local-taxation/) - Local taxation – local government collecting and spending locally revenue from taxes, fees and charges – has until recently received little attention from the national tax agencies, aid agencies, and international organisations that have shaped the tax reform agenda (Moore, 2013). Local governments generally receive most of their funds from central government, but property taxes,
- [Capacity development for taxation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/capacity-development-for-taxation/) - International guidance on capacity development for taxation broadly parallels the wider literature on capacity development (e.g. UN, 2013a). There are also a number of country case studies on capacity development for taxation (Holmes, Ndihokubwayo, & Ruvakubusa, 2013; Bennet, 2012; Danida & Bhutan Department of Revenue and Customs, 2011; UNDP, 2008). A joint report by the
- [Aid modalities and aid-funded goods and services](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/aid-modalities-and-aid-funded-goods-and-services/) - Aid can either reinforce or undermine tax systems and tax culture, depending on how it is channelled. International guidance suggests that donors should combine different aid modalities, adjusting them to local conditions (OECD, 2013). These should be coherent and coordinated, and ensure ownership and alignment with partner country government preferences. Guidance also suggests that donors
- [Supporting a culture of paying appropriate taxes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/approaches/supporting-a-culture-of-paying-appropriate-taxes/) - Tax morale is significantly correlated with tax effort and tax compliance in both high-income and developing countries (Daude et al., 2012; OECD, 2013a). Evidence on increasing tax morale to create a culture supportive of taxpaying is primarily based on econometric analysis using public opinion surveys, with few rigorous evaluations of efforts to create a taxpayer
- [Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/evidence/) - What do we know? Executive summary Institutions – formal and informal rules and norms – matter because they create incentives that shape behaviour. Many aid interventions have failed because they did not take into account governance and institutional issues. It is now widely accepted that institutions play a critical role in poverty reduction and growth.
- [Trends in development assistance to institutional reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/lessons/trends-in-development-assistance-to-institutional-reform/) - Diagnoses of development problems and their solutions, and the role of the state, have changed; the state has been viewed as the primary development actor (1945-79), the problem (1979-97), and as a rehabilitated strategic state (Brinkerhoff, 2008). These changes have been accompanied by shifts in the perceived role of citizens and an evolution in development
- [Components of an integrated approach](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/statebuilding-and-peacebuilding/components-of-an-integrated-approach/) - There are many different approaches and components to an integrated approach to statebuilding and peacebuilding. This section draws upon some of the key areas highlighted by DFID and OECD consultations: understanding the causes of conflict and fragility; supporting inclusive political settlements and peace processes; promoting peaceful dispute resolution mechanisms and capacities for peace; developing core
- [Key concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/statebuilding-and-peacebuilding/42472-2/) - Peacebuilding, as defined by the United Nations, involves ‘a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict, to strengthen national capacities at all levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundations for sustainable peace and development. Peacebuilding strategies must be coherent and tailored to the specific needs of
- [Donor and NGO approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/statebuilding-and-peacebuilding/donor-and-ngo-approaches/) - Statebuilding and peacebuilding are long-term, internal processes. Local ownership is essential. Although international development actors are often limited in their ability to influence outcomes, they can be vital in facilitating statebuilding and peacebuilding processes. External assistance may prove essential in enabling transitions and in helping to generate the right conditions and incentives for reform. Some
- [Bringing statebuilding and peacebuilding together](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/statebuilding-and-peacebuilding/bringing-statebuilding-and-peacebuilding-together/) - Page contents: The origins of a combined approach and complementarities between statebuilding and peacebuilding Tensions between statebuilding and peacebuilding The origins of a combined approach and complementarities between statebuilding and peacebuilding Violent conflict can exacerbate characteristics of fragility. At the same time, weak authority and unresponsive states can increase the likelihood of conflict. Interventions in
- [Vulnerable groups: needs and challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/vulnerable-groups-needs-and-challenges/) - Women and girls It is often women who require social protection interventions, as they are disproportionately vulnerable due to lack of capital, high wage differentials and gendered work norms, bearing the responsibility for childcare, and exclusion from basic services. Social assistance programmes, particularly conditional cash transfers, are often aimed at women as the recipient of
- [Policy objectives and evidence of impacts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/policy-objectives-and-evidence-of-impacts/) - Social protection can have a wide range of objectives and impacts, from food security, access to services, gender equality, and state-building, to social transformation. The emphasis in developing countries has been on poverty and vulnerability reduction, and human development, for which there is good evidence. There is less evidence on longer-term developmental impacts such as
- [Global issues and debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/global-issues-and-debates/) - Page contents Coverage, scale and systems Financing and affordability Political economy Targeting Conditionalities Shocks and risks Fragile and conflict-affected states State-building Coverage, scale and systems The last 15 years have seen a huge increase in social protection programmes, both the number of programmes and number of countries which have programmes (Gentilini et al., 2014). In
- [Types of social protection](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/types-of-social-protection/) - Social assistance Social assistance is direct, regular and predictable cash or in-kind resources transfers to poor and vulnerable individuals or households (Arnold et al., 2011: 91). It is usually provided by the state and financed by national taxes (Barrientos, 2010). Support from donors is also important in lower income contexts. Transfers are non-contributory, i.e. the
- [Design and implementation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/design-and-implementation/) - This section provides links to key manuals, guidance and other practical resources. General manuals Devereux, S. (2008). Innovations in the Design and Delivery of Social Transfers: Lessons Learned from Malawi. IDS and Concern Worldwide. See full text Grosh, M., del Ninno, C., Tesliuc, E. & Ouerghi, A. (2008). For Protection and Promotion: The Design and
- [Scaling up](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/approaches/scaling-up/) - Improving the coverage of quality basic services is a major concern for states and development partners. Some of the challenges to ensuring national, equitable coverage are a lack of skilled personnel, the prevalence of HIV/AIDS, and unsustainable financing. Chambers, R. (2009). Going to Scale with Community-Led Total Sanitation: Reflections on Experience, Issues and Ways Forward (IDS
- [PPPs and contracting](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/approaches/ppps-and-contracting/) - Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) are a system where government services are funded and operated through a partnership between government and a private company or citizen based organisation. PPPs are used extensively in developed countries, and increasingly in developing contexts. Contracting is a type of PPP. With careful design and management, contracting can bring benefits to the state
- [Local capacity building and community based approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/approaches/local-capacity-building-and-community-based-approaches/) - Building local capacity for service delivery may entail support to formal and informal local governance structures, including within and outside of government. Large-scale community-based approaches, and approaches which build trust and relationships with local service providers, have helped to reach deprived populations in some cases. Williamson, T., & Dom, C. (2010). Making sector budget support
- [Lessons from service delivery in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/approaches/lessons-from-service-delivery-in-fragile-states/) - Some of the most repeated advice to donors supporting service delivery in fragile states is to coordinate their interventions, take a long-term approach, build local capacity, foster local involvement and target marginalised groups. OECD DAC. (2008). Service Delivery in Fragile Situations: Key Concepts, Findings and Lessons (OECD/DAC discussion paper). Paris: OECD. How can service delivery
- [Expanding equitable access](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/approaches/expanding-equitable-access/) - Social groups who are routinely excluded from access to basic services may need to be effectively targeted. Over the long-term, progress on equitable access has been made in some cases where there has been a consistent commitment to pro-poor policies among key political leaders. Elsewhere, success has been seen where the poor or marginalised are
- [Decentralisation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/evidence/decentralisation/) - In theory, decentralised services respond better than highly centralised systems to diverse local needs. They may also be more efficient and encourage local accountability. In practice, however, challenges at the local level, such as weak incentives and limited financial resources, mean decentralisation may not automatically improve services. Some argue political decentralisation needs to be combined with
- [Accountability](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/evidence/accountability/) - Accountability failures can be an underlying cause of persistently poor service delivery. The seminal World Development Report in 2004, Making Services Work for Poor People, drew attention to the problems of accountability at three levels; between citizens and political actors, between political actors and bureaucrats/providers, and between citizen-users and providers. It placed particular emphasis on
- [Voice and participation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/evidence/voice-and-participation/) - Users’ ability to express preferences and participate in the design or monitoring of public services is considered vital for ensuring provision is inclusive and responds to community needs. Community-based approaches, where communities are involved in decision-making processes around delivery, have been successful in some cases. Nevertheless, citizens’ capacity to make their voices heard or participate
- [Information and incentives](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/evidence/information-and-incentives/) - Helping users understand their rights and entitlements is often pitched as key to improving service delivery. Likewise, it is sometimes argued that openly publishing information on the performance of public services can encourage political actors to commit to addressing persistent problems of underperformance. Nevertheless, the evidence on the relationship between information, user demand, and political
- [Service delivery in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/concepts/service-delivery-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Failure to deliver basic services is increasingly understood as both a symptom and cause of state fragility. Conflict adversely impacts the coverage and quality of basic services, and this in turn negatively affects human development and economic activity. Supporting basic services can become highly political in situations where there is conflict, instability, inequality and social
- [Role and impact of non-state providers](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/concepts/role-and-impact-of-non-state-providers/) - Providing vital public services is typically seen as the responsibility of the state. However, in practice a number of formal and informal providers are likely to be delivering water, sanitation, education and health in most developing country settings. Non-state providers (NSP) take many forms, ranging from large-scale for-profit firms, to individual entrepreneurs, to non-profit community
- [Equity of access](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/concepts/equity-of-access/) - Equitable access to essential public services is vital for human development, for making growth inclusive, and for tackling persistent inequality. Disparities in access exist between different income groups, urban versus rural areas, conflict-affected versus relatively stable regions, between men, women and girls, and between and within ethnic groups. Underlying inequalities can be exacerbated or re-produced
- [Revenues and services](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/challenges/revenues-and-services/) - Managing revenues and building capacity for accountable and fair service delivery are key areas of statebuilding and peacebuilding reforms. The literature makes a distinction between two types of public administration activities: basic activities, and service delivery activities (UNDP, 2013a). Public financial management (PFM) Public financial management (PFM) is considered a ‘basic’ public administration activity (also
- [Security and justice](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/challenges/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/) - Security, justice and the rule of law are survival functions of the state, and frequently considered prerequisites for economic and social development (World Bank, 2011b; Meagher, 2011; Timilsina, 2007). Restoring or building a minimum level of security is often a priority for international support to FCAS, but actors’ understandings of security vary significantly. Typical areas
- [Statebuilding and peacebuilding frameworks](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/tools/statebuilding-and-peacebuilding-frameworks/) - Much of the literature advises that more focus should be given to the process of sequencing. Sequencing is part of the wider process of prioritisation of reforms. This thinking has led to the development of a variety of frameworks to structure strategic planning and coordination, diagnostic tools to identify and monitor need and capacity, and
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/sequencing-reforms-in-fragile-states/summary/) - How can governments in fragile and conflict affected states (FCAS) plan and manage reforms when everything is urgent and important, and when capacity and resources are low? How can external actors strategically support the fulfilment of essential and expected state functions? What are the recurring challenges and trade-offs that face FCAS, and how do these
- [Evidence of links between institutions, development outcomes and growth](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/outcomes/evidence-of-links-between-institutions-development-outcomes-and-growth/) - In the late 1980s economics and political science started to explore the influence of institutions, giving rise to ‘new institutionalism’ (e.g. North, 1990; March & Olsen, 1989; Fritz & Rocha Menocal, 2007, p. 50). This mainstream development discourse posits a link between the right type of institutions and poverty reduction. The widely-accepted theory is that
- [Impact of institutional reform on development outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/outcomes/impact-of-institutional-reform-on-development-outcomes/) - The predominantly observational research assessing the impact of support to institutional reforms consistently finds mixed results. While there are some success stories, recent studies find that many institutional reforms do not seem to make government function better, often have quite poor results, and rarely lead to sustainable change and impact on poverty reduction (Andrews, 2013,
- [Critical perspectives on institutionalism](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/outcomes/critical-perspectives-on-institutionalism/) - The basic institutionalist framework is well-evidenced. Some research has suggested, however, that an exclusive institutional focus risks missing other factors such as political, economic and geographical contextual concerns that are also important for development. The predominant causal role of institutions is not universally accepted: some experts (e.g. Sachs, 2003) posit that factors such as geography
- [Working with political and social institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/lessons/working-with-political-and-social-institutions/) - Key Points To be effective, reform processes need to work within the political logic of the context Informal institutions are pervasive, and can undermine reforms unless they are taken into account. The international development community has until recently tended to presume that the ‘right’ institutions can be imported into a country, and that this will
- [Starting with existing contexts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/lessons/starting-with-existing-contexts/) - Key Points Building on what’s there can help maximise existing capacity and develop contextually appropriate reform The process of reform may be more important than its content Incremental, adaptive reforms can generate learning and momentum for change. Building on what works Grindle (2007) points out that governance interventions are not introduced in a vacuum; some
- [Tools and guidelines](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/lessons/tools-and-guidelines/) - A variety of tools and guidelines have emerged in recent years which provide practical guidance for institutional reform. One can think of the process of institutional reform as a series of steps, starting with political, institutional and organisational appraisals and ending in monitoring and evaluation: Source: DFID, 2003b Political economy analysis Many analytical frameworks for
- [Donor roles, challenges and modalities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/lessons/donor-roles-challenges-and-modalities/) - Key Points Brokering and convening change can provide effective assistance Institutional reform processes need to work with the organisational constraints of donor agencies Complementary long-term, flexible and ‘hands-on’ aid modalities and instruments have been required to address institutional blockages. Working with leaders and constituency building Unsworth (2010) finds that donors have tended to rely on
- [Approaches to designing public sector institutional reform](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/lessons/approaches-to-designing-public-sector-institutional-reform/) - Key Points Successful reforms have started by identifying and framing the problem Preparation and political economy analysis can help identify windows of opportunity Broad engagement with leaders and networks can help to build constituencies for change Process approaches Recent research findings suggest that the process of reform (how a problem is identified and a solution
- [What are institutions?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/concepts/what-are-institutions/) - A commonly accepted definition of institutions is that they are the formal and informal rules that organise social, political and economic relations (North, 1990). They are the systems of ‘established and prevalent social rules that structure social interactions’ (Hodgson, 2006, p. 2). Key features of institutions include the following (see also the Inclusive Institutions Topic
- [Institutional reform and organisational change](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/concepts/institutional-reform-and-organisational-change/) - How is public sector institutional reform different from organisational change? Public sector institutional reform attempts to change institutions and the way they function: the underlying incentives and norms that shape behaviour in organisations, rather than the formal organisational structures, rules and processes. The challenge for institutional reform in the past has been to identify institutions
- [Challenges to reform in public sector institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/public-sector-institutional-reform/concepts/challenges-to-reform-in-public-sector-institutions/) - Public sector institutional reform faces some fundamental challenges. Successful reforms are not only about technical capacity and knowledge. Improving public sector effectiveness is fundamentally political and shaped by the political settlement (Bukenya & Yanguas, 2013). Reforms have to deal with complex political and social contexts including corruption, patronage, and political capture. Thus PSIR initiatives need
- [Political parties](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/political-parties/) - Political parties are the main vehicles for organising political representation, political competition, and democratic accountability. They link the state and civil society, can influence the executive, formulate public policy, engage in political recruitment, structure electoral choices and facilitate coalitions. But political parties in developing countries are often weak, which decreases democratic competition and representation. Why
- [Political finance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/political-finance/) - The funding of political activities is a key issue for ensuring good governance and combating corruption. It is also a complex moral and legal issue. The resources below consider how politicians and their parties can best be funded and what are the most effective financial safeguards for ensuring 'free and fair' elections in a given
- [Policy processes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/policy-processes/) - Policy making has traditionally been viewed as a linear, top-down approach with two distinct phases: formulation and implementation. Academics have been criticising this approach for many years, arguing that policy development is a dynamic, open and highly political process, which involves multiple actors and negotiations. This page explores why policy-making is important for development, how
- [Participation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/participation/) - Donors support political participation as a means of improving state accountability and responsiveness, and empowering the poor. But have democratisation processes really increased political participation, particularly pro-poor participation? If not, what are the barriers to such participation? Political participation can involve activities ranging from voting in elections or joining a union, to discussing politics with
- [Effective legislatures](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/effective-legislatures/) - How can legislatures ensure the state is really accountable to citizens, and that service delivery is efficient? Why and how should they be strengthened? Within a political system, the 'legislature' is the elected or selected body that makes laws for a state. Legislatures (sometimes called parliament, senate or congress) perform three key roles: representation of
- [Informal and customary political systems](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/informal-and-customary-political-systems/) - Donors have tended to focus on formal political institutions and structures. Although these are important, it is essential to recognise that much political activity takes place according to informal norms and systems in developing countries. Whilst formal political systems are generally publicly announced, for example in laws, regulations and codes, informal systems are embedded in
- [Democracy](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-systems/democracy/) - Democracy is a highly contested concept, both in terms of its definition and its relationship to development. Whilst some understand it in procedural terms – as electoral competition and decision-making – others view it more broadly in terms of civil and political rights and the distribution of power within society. Either way, a central question
- [Sector-level tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/tools/sector-level-tools/) - Sector level analysis identifies the interests, incentives, power structures and relations that shape policy and practice at the level of sectors. Proponents argue that this approach lends itself more easily to identifying practical entry points for action. Poole, A. (2011). Political economy assessments at sector and project levels (How-To Note). Washington, DC: World Bank. This
- [Problem-driven tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/tools/problem-driven-tools/) - The problem-driven framework is not a specific ‘tool’ itself, but rather a ‘platform’ that tries to bring together and to summarise for World Bank teams some practices, thinking, and lessons learned, and to point to some existing tools, such as varieties of stakeholder analysis. The PGPE approach is similar to Sida’s power analysis and DFID’s
- [PEA in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/tools/pea-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/) - Political economy analysis in fragile and conflict-affected states often focuses on an understanding of the political and the economic drivers of conflict, and the relative power, exclusion and vulnerability of different groups over time. It can highlight competing rules of the game in (and between) formal and informal institutions which are often prevalent in fragile and
- [General guidance and critique](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/tools/general-guidance-and-critique/) - There are an increasing number of political economy tools available to development agencies, some of which are tailored to specific operational purposes. Though there is some variation in emphasis, many of these tools centre their analysis on actors, institutions and incentives operating at the macro, meso and micro level. The new institutional economics thinking that
- [Country-level tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/tools/country-level-tools/) - Early political economy analyses were primarily conducted at country level, to support the design of country strategies and programmes. Some of the more widely cited country-level approaches are DFID’s Drivers of Change, the Dutch Foreign Ministry’s Strategic Governance and Corruption Assessment, and Sida’s Power Analysis. DFID’s Drivers of Change DFID’s Drivers of Change approach was
- [Communications for politically informed programming](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/tools/communications-for-politically-informed-programming/) - Advocates of communication argue that communication tools and techniques can be used to turn political economy analysis into action: that is, they can address political barriers in the form of lack of political will among key government leaders, vested interests, lack of citizen demand for accountability, or hostile public opinion. The World Bank’s Communication for
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/summary/) - Political economy analysis (PEA) aims to situate development interventions within an understanding of the prevailing political and economic processes in society – specifically, the incentives, relationships, and distribution and contestation of power among different groups and individuals. Such an analysis can support more politically feasible and therefore more effective development strategies by setting realistic expectations
- [Rationale for PEA](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/impact/rationale-for-pea/) - Political economy analysis aims to situate development interventions within an understanding of the prevailing political and economic processes in society – specifically, the incentives, relationships, distribution and contestation of power between different groups and individuals – all of which greatly impact on development outcomes. Such an analysis can support more politically feasible and therefore more
- [Making PEA operationally relevant](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/impact/making-pea-operationally-relevant/) - Historically, a major critique of PEA has been that it highlights binding constraints to aid effectiveness without necessarily offering any solutions for practitioners. To be relevant and actionable, political analysis needs to identify tangible entry points, and ideally be integrated into programming from the design stage. In this way, some argue PEA is best conceived
- [Impact of PEA](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/impact/impact-of-pea/) - The ultimate goal of political economy analysis is to improve the quality and impact of aid. Though there is anecdotal evidence that PEA has been useful in generating greater political awareness and realism among donor staff, few case studies can rigorously trace the impact of political analysis or politically informed programming on aid outcomes. In
- [Drivers of change country studies](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/examples/drivers-of-change-country-studies/) - Country Studies Angola Drivers of Change: an Overview Angola: Drivers of Change Position Paper 1: Economic Change and Reform Angola: Drivers of Change Position Paper 2: Politics Angola: Drivers of Change Position Paper 3: Civil Society Bangladesh Drivers of Change Study Summary Version: Drivers of Change Study Bolivia Bolivia's Political Party System and the Incentives
- [Sector PEA studies](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/examples/sector-pea-studies/) - Service delivery Wild, L., & Cammack, D. (2013). The supply and distribution of essential medicines in Malawi: summary findings. London: Overseas Development Institute. This paper summarises the findings of a brief political economy analysis of the procurement, supply and distribution of essential medicines in Malawi. It uses a sectoral political economy framework that provides a
- [Further resources](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/further-resources/) - The Policy Practice holds an extensive range of resources on political economy analysis on their website, including a library of online PEA tools. The European Commission Capacity4Dev Political Economy in Practice group was set up to discuss and support the introduction of a ‘political economy’ approach in EC Development Cooperation, but it also includes regularly
- [Governance assessment](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/political-economy-analysis/governance-assessment/) - Political economy analysis is part of a broader landscape of donor work on governance assessment. Whilst conventional governance assessment is very different to political economy analysis – governance assessment tends to focus on measuring the performance, accountability, responsiveness and capacity of formal institutions, whereas political economy analysis aims to understand why deficits in these areas
- [Applying monitoring and evaluation tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/measuring-results/applying-monitoring-and-evaluation-tools/) - Page contents Evaluating governance programmes Governance indicators M&E in fragile and conflict-affected states M&E of empowerment and accountability M&E of policy influence M&E in governance and social development sub-sectors Monitoring and evaluation tools and approaches are applied in a range of programmes and contexts. This section provides a guide to key resources on using monitoring
- [Managing monitoring and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/measuring-results/managing-monitoring-and-evaluation/) - Page contents Steps in planning and design Ensuring evaluation quality Identifying threats to the validity of evaluation findings Evaluating multi-donor programmes The politics of evaluation Promoting the use of evaluation findings Strengthening national M&E capacity Strengthening national statistical capacity Badly designed and managed evaluations can do more harm than good: misleading results can undermine the
- [Gender analysis and value for money](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/measuring-results/gender-analysis-and-value-for-money/) - Gender analysis Development interventions can have differential impacts on men and women: men and women have different needs and constraints, different opportunities to participate in programme design and implementation, and benefit differently from outcomes and impacts. A gender analysis framework should therefore be a component of all evaluation designs. It is also important to have
- [Context and definitions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/measuring-results/context-and-definitions/) - Page contents The changing context of monitoring and evaluation Common tools and approaches Terms and definitions Where is a good place to start? The changing context of monitoring and evaluation The international context for M&E is changing, with increasing focus on measuring results and critically analysing aid effectiveness. Several international initiatives and agreements over the
- [Impact evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/measuring-results/impact-evaluation/) - Page contents Impact evaluation: an introduction Attribution and the counterfactual: the case for more and better impact evaluation Randomised Control Trials: the gold standard? Adapting to time, budget and data constraints Mixed-method designs Toolkits Theory-based evaluation Impact evaluation: an introduction The recent emphasis on accountability and results-based management has stimulated interest in evaluating not just
- [Humanitarian principles and humanitarian assistance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/concepts/humanitarian-principles-and-humanitarian-assistance/) - The volume of humanitarian assistance has increased significantly since the end of the Cold War, alongside the number of actors providing such assistance. Humanitarian actors are expected to base their assistance on certain fundamental humanitarian principles. They can also seek guidance for their work in various sources of international humanitarian law. What are humanitarian principles?
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/summary/) - Summary map: the legal frameworks at a glance Download summary map (4pp, 386 KB; optimal display in Adobe Reader) The legal frameworks: guidance and tools for humanitarian action The provision of humanitarian assistance takes place in a variety of settings – under occupation, in international and internal armed conflicts, and in the event of natural
- [Overview of international humanitarian law](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/concepts/overview-of-international-humanitarian-law/) - International humanitarian law comprises a set of rules, established by treaty or custom, applicable in situations of armed conflict. As noted, it is inspired by considerations of humanity and the mitigation of human suffering. What are the aims and sources of IHL? Although the origins of IHL can be traced to at least the nineteenth
- [Overlapping areas of law – toward a comprehensive legal framework](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/concepts/overlapping-areas-of-law-toward-a-comprehensive-legal-framework/) - Different areas of international law – primarily international human rights law, international refugee law and international criminal law – can operate at the same time as IHL, combining to create a comprehensive legal framework for protection and assistance. It is now generally accepted that human rights law applies during armed conflict as well as in
- [Introduction to international law](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/concepts/introduction-to-international-law/) - Public international law (commonly referred to as ‘international law’) governs relationships between and among entities with international legal personality: sovereign states and other international actors, such as inter-governmental organisations and individual natural persons. The legal personality attributed to these entities means that they have rights, protections, responsibilities and liabilities under international law. What are the
- [The responsibility to protect](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/challenges/the-responsibility-to-protect/) - The principle of non-intervention is a key aspect of international law. The UN Charter of 1945 states clearly that: ‘Nothing in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state’ (Article 2(7)). This provision applies specifically to UN organs. An exception to
- [The emergence of international disaster response laws, rules and principles](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/challenges/the-emergence-of-international-disaster-response-laws-rules-and-principles/) - Operating specifically in the context of armed conflict, international humanitarian law covers only part of the regime of humanitarian assistance. The growing number of disasters and their humanitarian impacts has prompted the need for a framework that addresses the responsibilities of states and humanitarian agencies in disaster settings. This has led to the emergence of
- [Resources and references](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/challenges/resources-and-references/) - Key guidelines, UN documents and web links International disaster response laws, rules and principles Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance of 2007 (IFRC) Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters (ILC Programme) The responsibility to protect ICISS (2001) The Responsibility to Protect, Report of the
- [IHL and humanitarian assistance involving non-state armed groups](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/challenges/ihl-and-humanitarian-assistance-involving-non-state-armed-groups/) - Since the mid-1990s, IHL has expanded its coverage of non-international armed conflicts. Various treaties have been drafted or revised to regulate states and armed groups party to such conflicts. Customary international law has gone through a similar expansion (Roberts and Sivakumaran, 2012). The term ‘armed groups’ is not defined in treaty law. As noted in
- [Compliance with and enforcement of IHL](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/international-legal-frameworks-for-humanitarian-action/challenges/compliance-with-and-enforcement-of-ihl/) - There are various methods and mechanisms that have been adopted to promote compliance with and enforcement of international humanitarian law. For example, these can take the form of penal and disciplinary measures, legal advisors in the military and military sanctions, fact-finding missions, human rights bodies, and the enforcement of international criminal law through courts and
- [Impact of inclusive institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/development-outcomes/impact-of-inclusive-institutions/) - There is now broad consensus – supported by substantial evidence – that inclusive institutions are important for growth, poverty reduction, development and peaceful societies. Establishing the direction of causality between institutions and outcomes, and pinpointing which institutions cause what outcomes and how is, however, very difficult. Evidence of the development impact of institutions A DFID
- [Impact of exclusive institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/development-outcomes/impact-of-exclusive-institutions/) - Overall, the effects of institutional arrangements on economic growth and development are likely to be context specific (Rodrik et al., 2004: 157-158). Some countries with less inclusive political and economic institutions have experienced (in some cases, spectacular) economic growth and significant poverty reduction (for example, China). Recent research by the Africa Power and Politics Programme
- [What do inclusive/exclusive institutions look like?](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/concepts-and-debates/what-do-inclusiveexclusive-institutions-look-like/) - Inclusive institutions: Bestow equal rights and entitlements, and enable equal opportunities, voice and access to resources and services. Are typically based on principles of universality, non-discrimination, or targeted action. Targeted action is needed where some people and groups are particularly disadvantaged, and therefore require differential treatment to achieve the equivalent outcomes. Examples of inclusive institutions
- [Reforming institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/concepts-and-debates/reforming-institutions/) - Institutions are changing all the time, as they are formed and reformed through people's repeated actions (Martin, 2004: 1255, summarising Giddens, 1984). However, deliberately reforming institutions is usually complicated and difficult, and, above all, incremental (North, 1990: 89). Moreover, some changes require institutionalising new rules and behaviours. External shocks or internal political or economic processes
- [Inclusive institutions on the development agenda](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/concepts-and-debates/inclusive-institutions-on-the-development-agenda/) - Donors support inclusive institutions to promote social inclusion and tackle inequality. Social exclusion and inequality have substantial negative impacts on poverty reduction, undermining the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (World Bank, 2013a; Kabeer, 2010; Jones, 2009). There is now rigorous evidence that income inequality exacerbates poverty (World Bank, 2005a: 84-87; UNDP, 2005: 64-66). Gender inequality further
- [Impact of exclusive institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/concepts-and-debates/impact-of-exclusive-institutions/) - The literature highlights the negative impacts of exclusive institutions in relation to: Poverty: Exclusive institutions not only perpetuate economic disadvantage, they also impact negatively on the non-economic dimensions of poverty. This includes lack of access to services, lack of voice in decision-making, and vulnerability to violence and corruption (Sen, 1992; Jolly et al., 2012: 36).
- [How institutions shape development outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/concepts-and-debates/how-institutions-shape-development-outcomes/) - Formal and informal institutions structure the distribution of opportunities, assets and resources in society. For example, political settlements (usually an agreement among elites) establish the formal rules for managing political and economic relations (such as electoral processes, constitutions, and market regulations), as well as the informal division of power and resources (DFID, 2010a: 22). Powerful
- [Defining institutions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/concepts-and-debates/defining-institutions/) - Institutions are the formal and informal rules and norms that organise social, political and economic relations (North, 1990). They are not the same as organisations. Key features of institutions are: They are brought to life by people and organisations (North, 1990; Leftwich & Sen, 2010). They provide a relatively predictable structure for everyday social, economic
- [Social protection](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-growth/ingredients/social-protection/) - The literature outlines two key, linked roles that social protection plays in contributing to inclusive growth. Firstly, it acts as a means of protecting the poorest and most vulnerable in society from shocks and crises, which is critical in limiting the need for poor families to sell assets or disengage from other productive activities (UNDP,
- [Gender, violence and peace in the post-2015 agenda](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/concepts-debates-and-frameworks/gender-violence-and-peace-in-the-post-2015-agenda/) - Conflict and violence are important factors obstructing progress on the MDGs (World Bank, 2011). It has been argued that the post-2015 framework of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) must address the most common drivers of conflict and violence (Saferworld & Conciliation Resources, 2014). Several international organisations, including DFID and the OECD, called for a stand-alone goal
- [Sexual and reproductive health and rights](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/sexual-and-reproductive-health-and-rights/) - Page contents Introduction Maternal health Gender and HIV/AIDS Further resources Introduction Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a human right, essential to human development and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. SRH issues include death and disability related to pregnancy, abortion and childbirth, sexually transmitted infections, HIV and AIDS, and reproductive tract cancers. SRH
- [Concepts, debates and frameworks](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/concepts-debates-and-frameworks/)
- [Approaches, tools and interventions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/approaches-tools-and-interventions/)
- [Poverty and inequalities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/drivers-and-constraints/poverty-and-inequalities/) - Evidence consistently confirms that the capacity of an individual, family or community to prepare for, withstand and respond to a hazard or crisis is enabled or constrained by social status, income and ethnicity (Bosher et al., 2007). There is consensus that the poor suffer the greatest losses from disasters (Oxfam, 2013; Shepherd et al., 2013).
- [Access and inclusion](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/lessons/lessons-access-and-inclusion/) - In many countries, discrimination in the civil service can restrict the recruitment and progression of people from ethnic and religious minorities, people with disabilities, or women. Merit-based recruitment and promotion can help address discrimination (McCourt 2007), but some efforts to enhance inclusion, such as quotas, may undermine efforts to create a purely meritocratic civil service.
- [Evaluation, results and value for money](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/lessons/lessons-evaluation-results-and-value-for-money/) - It is difficult to identify tangible progress in civil service reform (Evans 2008), but a wide range of tools for measuring public administration performance is available as a basis for designing indicators. Evans (2008) suggests improving evaluation practice by linking civil service reforms to more concretely measureable public finance management reforms (e.g. payroll and HR
- [Sustaining flexible support](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/lessons/lessons-sustaining-flexible-support/) - Evidence suggests a need for both consistent, long-term financial support, and for responsive funding that can be quickly disbursed. There seems to be little research, however, that identifies which aid instruments have the best track record in effectively supporting civil service reform. A literature review on public sector governance reform, including civil service reform, concludes that
- [Incentivising performance](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/lessons/lessons-incentivising-performance/) - Incentivising staff is important for improving civil service performance and has been both a consistent challenge (Bebbington & McCourt 2006) and an objective of many reform efforts. Evidence suggests that building a merit-based civil service is the most effective way of incentivising staff, while pay reform and performance monitoring have been less effective. Merit-based recruitment
- [Understanding the context](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/lessons/understanding-the-context/) - Understanding the interplay between public organisations and the surrounding social context is fundamental to developing a reform strategy (Andrews, 2008). Evidence indicates that successful reform requires strong domestic political leadership. Political economy analysis tools can be useful for understanding context. In an evaluation of 19 cases where the World Bank was involved in civil service
- [Flexibility, pragmatism and being vigilant for opportunities](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/lessons/lessons-flexibility-pragmatism-and-being-vigilant-for-opportunities/) - There is debate in the literature over whether a whole-of-system or a focused, incremental approach to civil service reform is more effective. Flexible approaches to exploiting ‘windows of opportunity’ (Bunse and Fritz 2012) and building on existing areas of capacity (Leonard 2008; Crook 2010) have shown success in some cases. While the emergence of these
- [Lessons](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/lessons/)
- [Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/challenges-and-traps/) - Key points Some of the most common mistakes made in designing civil service reform interventions include: Giving insufficient attention to politics and patronage Attempting to transplant one country’s structures and practices to another country without due consideration of contexts Over-emphasising downsizing and cost-cutting Failing to integrate reform activities into a wider policy and organisational framework.
- [Reform objectives and approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/concepts-t/concepts-reform-objectives-and-approaches/) - The focus of civil service reform has changed over time, and opinions differ about the goals and objectives of civil service reform. McCourt (2013, below) identifies six major problems faced by the civil service, and six major approaches to reform. These challenges and types of reform can overlap and are not mutually exclusive. Table 1:
- [About the civil service](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/concepts-t/concepts-about-the-civil-service/) - What is the civil service? The civil service is typically described as the core, permanent administrative arm of government, including permanent and pensionable officials working in government ministries, departments and agencies. It includes staff who advise on, develop, and implement government policies and programmes and manage day-to-day activities. However, there is no universal definition for
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/civil-service-reform/concepts-t/)
- [Adaptive capacity](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/drivers-and-constraints/adaptive-capacity/) - The impact of a disaster depends not only on the magnitude of the hazard but also on a range of socio-economic and environmental variables (Bahadur et al., 2010; Castleden et al., 2011; Manyena, 2006). This section summarises evidence on the drivers of and constraints on resilience to natural hazards. These factors are related, and often
- [Executive summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/service-delivery/executive-summary/) - Equitable access to essential public services is vital for human development, inclusive growth, and tackling persistent inequality. Underlying inequalities can be exacerbated or re-produced where access to public services is uneven, or marginalises certain groups on the basis of their identity or location. Often the main barriers to inclusive service delivery are political and institutional.
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/concepts/)
- [Approaches and tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/approaches-and-tools/)
- [Sectoral interventions](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/conflict-sensitivity/sectoral-interventions/)
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender-and-conflict/summary/)
- [Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/evidence/) - Selected evidence on the impact of interventions to support inclusive institutions This evidence guide in table format (PDF, 4pp, 168 kB) gives an overview of the findings of the evidence selected for inclusion in the topic guide. (It is not a comprehensive review of the entire body of evidence on this topic.) Download PDF Summary
- [Concepts and debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/concepts-and-debates/)
- [Development outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/development-outcomes/)
- [Approaches, interventions and tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/inclusive-institutions/approaches-interventions-and-tools/)
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/tax-reform/concepts/)

## E-Learning

- [Webinar: Urban governance](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/webinar-urban-governance/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1k99aP_yjU On July 13 2016, Dr Robert Muggah (Igarapé Institute), and Dr Jaideep Gupte (IDS) joined GSDRC Research Fellow Dr William Avis to discuss key issues on urban governance, including urban governance in fragile cities. An audio-only version is available here.
- [Humanitarian learning resource guide](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/humanitarian-learning-resource-guide/) - This 12-page guide is designed to provide DFID staff and other interested parties with information about free online courses and materials they can use to develop or refresh their humanitarian technical competencies. It is not an exhaustive list, but provides a starting point for those working to support DFID’s humanitarian objectives. Further resources may be
- [Humanitarian learning resource guide (2020 Update)](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/humanitarian-learning-resource-guide-2020-update/) - This 25-page guide is designed to provide FCDO staff and other interested parties with information about free online courses and materials they can use to develop or refresh their humanitarian technical competencies. This publication is a revised edition of this resource guide. The 2016 edition was developed for GSDRC as part of the DFID-funded PEAKS
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.29](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-29/) - This fortnightly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. Based on feedback from the recent survey, and analysis by the Xcept project, this edition, as
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.28](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-28/) - The fortnightly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This summary features resources on C19’s unequal impacts and policy responses; responses to build long-term resilience
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.27](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-27/) - This fortnightly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This summary features resources on how C19 is catalysing global civil society, C19’s impact on borderlands
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.26](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-26/) - This fortnightly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This summary features resources on: how to understand vaccine uncertainty beyond misinformation, and how to build
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.25](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-25/) - This fortnightly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This summary features resources on: the need to rethink development in - how we use evidence
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.24](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-24/) - This Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. From this week onwards this summary will be fortnightly, not weekly. This week, features resources on how
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.30](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-30/) - This fortnightly Covid-19 (C19), Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on C19, to inform and support their responses. Based on the feedback given in a recent survey, and analysis by the Xcept project, this
- [Humanitarian  Action (2020 Update)](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/humanitarian-action-2020-update/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=st7fYLPABQc&feature=youtu.be K4D professional development Reading Packs provide thought-provoking introductions by international experts and highlight the emerging issues and debates within them. They aim to help inform policies that are more resilient to the future. This publication is a new edition of this reading pack. The 2014 edition was written by Sara Pantuliano for GSDRC
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.23](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-23/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: protest and civic restrictions in the time of C19; how US-Chinese
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.22](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-22/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: How Colombian gangs have responded to C19; how Bangladesh’s C19 response
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.21](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-21/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on pandemic preparedness through health information systems; how C19 is impacting on
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.20](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-20/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: how C19 is undermining financial accountability, transparency and integrity; the secondary
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.19](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-19/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: African experiences of C19, based on a survey of 24,000 people;
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.18](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-18/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: trends in defence and security corruption arising from C19, including how
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.17](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-17/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: C19 effects on conflict and how to respond; a huge study
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.16](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-16/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week features resources on: how to address C19 health risks during elections in Nigeria; the
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.15](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-15/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: Intimate Partner Violence during the COVID-19; the resilience of African Food Systems, Tackling the C19 youth employment crisis
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.14](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-14/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on how policy responses to the C19 pandemic should differ in the Developing World; the state of the Asia-Pacific
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.13](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-13/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on how a resilience lens can help build trust and build back better from C19; the need to address
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.12](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-12/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on Yemeni women’s role in the C19 response, amidst war; how C19 has changed the focus and urgency of
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.11](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-11/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on the impacts of C19 on geopolitics in East Africa; advice on collecting data on gender-based violence during C19;
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.10](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-10/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on how C19 is affecting relations between the state and religious authorities in North Africa; how Trump’s “war on
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.9](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-9/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on Rohingya refugee experiences of C19 in the Cox’s Bazar camps; how civil society can progress the Women, Peace
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.7](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-7/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on democratic backsliding under C19; how C19 is increasing gender inequality in conflict affected contexts and is increasing domestic
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.8](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-8/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19) to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on a C19 conflict sensitivity tool; a database on ceasefire updates; C19 lessons from the 14th century Black Plague;
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.6](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-6/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aim to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on public perceptions of government responses to C19 (comparing views from democracies and non-democracies) and how C19 is shaping
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.5](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-5/) - This week, features resources on virtual parliaments and virtual qualitative research methods; and how C19 is affecting positive peace, conflict dynamics, and peacekeeping. Many of the core C19 themes continue to be covered this week, including increasing gender-based violence and hunger, C19-related media suppression, the evolving new world order (or ‘disorder’), and corruption. The summary
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.4](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-4/) - This weekly Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, features resources on: the gender gap in C19 responses; questions to ensure conflict sensitivity in C19 responses; how to protect children
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.3](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-3/) - This weekly Covid-19 Conflict and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week features resources on why we need ‘leader-centred’ analysis to understand how individual leaders’ choices have shaped the effectiveness of C19 responses
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.1](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-1/) - This weekly Covid-19 Conflict and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19, to inform and support their responses. This week, many of the key themes that emerged at the start of the Covid-19 continue to be discussed, including: allegations of corruption related
- [Covid-19, Conflict, and Governance Evidence Summary No.2](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/covid-19-conflict-and-governance-evidence-summary-no-2/) - This weekly Covid-19 Conflict and Governance Evidence Summary aims to signpost DFID and other UK government departments to the latest evidence and opinions on Covid-19 (C19), to inform and support their responses. This week, key focus issues and themes include: the impact of C19 in Latin America, as it now appears to be the epicentre
- [Identity](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/identity/) - What is identity? Identity is as much about how people describe themselves and others as it is inherently about difference – defining a group with regards to dissimilarities in cultural, gendered, sexual, ethnic or national markers among others. Questions relating to identity may also be buried in other terms and framing depending on context –
- [Video of seminar on Mass atrocities](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/mass-atrocities/) - A video of Chandra Sriram's GSDRC seminar is now available below. Professor Sriram explored three critical issues in developing responses to mass atrocities introduced in her Professional Development Reading Pack on the same subject. Chandra Sriram is Professor of International Law and International Relations at the University of East London. This seminar was held on 8
- [Religion and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/religion-and-conflict/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJyNxrCjaDk The role of religion in international relations and its relationship with conflict and with peacebuilding is increasingly acknowledged but remains disputed. Secular resistance to incorporating religion in public affairs has given way to numerous academic publications, discussion forums and public initiatives. Governments and international organisations are increasingly willing to examine religion and incorporate it,
- [Citizen voice and action](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/citizen-voice-action/) - No democratic government can afford not to listen to the voices of its citizens. There a three reasons for this. First, it is a matter of common sense. Involving people in discussions about how to tackle a problem that affects their lives is much more likely to generate successful solutions. If opportunities are made to
- [Implementing Public Financial Management Reform](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/implementing-public-financial-management-reform/) - Changing existing governance systems can be challenging, especially if communication of the changes, the reasons behind them, and the planned or expected results to be achieved are lacking. In fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS), this can be further complicated by the involvement of international agencies and their relationships with country governments, as well as by
- [Stabilisation](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/stabilisation/) - What is stabilisation? Stabilisation efforts have become a common policy component of intervention in conflict response throughout the world. In recent years, there have been significant stabilisation interventions in places such as the Western Balkans, Haiti and Mali, among others. The concept of stabilisation, understood as the requirement to meet basic humanitarian and development needs
- [Poverty and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/poverty-and-conflict/) - Poverty and conflict are widely understood to be closely interconnected; with poverty making countries more prone to civil war, and armed conflict weakening governance and economic performance, thus increasing the risk of conflict relapse (Goodhand 2001). The selected readings in this pack move beyond reductive and harmful assumptions about ‘pathologies’ of poverty to examine the
- [Social movements](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/social-movements/) - Social movements as contentious politics Social movements are large, often informal groupings of people who come together against power holders around a common cause, in response to situations of perceived inequality, oppression and/or unmet social, political, economic or cultural demands. At their core, social movements are not about “polite debate” or “invited spaces” of interaction between
- [Security and justice](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/security-and-justice/) - Security and justice are priorities for poor people, are core functions of the state, and frequently considered prerequisites for economic and social development and prevention of violent conflict. The creation of spaces where people feel safe and secure are also at the heart of statebuilding. However, approaches to security and justice remain heavily contested, overlapping
- [Social protection systems](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/social-protection-systems/) - A social protection system, in an international development context, is broadly understood to be an integrated national portfolio of interventions which aims to serve four basic functions for households and individuals: protection of a minimum standard of living, prevention of deprivation through increasing resilience to shocks, and promotion of sustainable livelihood improvements. At a societal
- [Urban governance in fragile cities](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/urban-governance-fragile-cities/) - The planet is urbanising at a rapid pace. There is no agreed definition of what constitutes a city, however the world's new geography includes dozens of super cities (population of 40 million+), hyper-cities (population of at least 20 million), conurbations and more. While a number of the world’s largest cities still reside in North America
- [National climate governance and politics](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/national-climate-governance-and-politics/) - https://youtu.be/iiaQ_UuRE3Q In the wake of the Paris Agreement on climate change, multilaterals and aid agencies are shifting significant attention to the national arena, where the fulfilment of climate commitments will depend upon new legal and regulatory frameworks, supporting institutions, and the political support within and outside the government. The characteristics of climate change—complexity, uncertainty, irreversibility,
- [Governance, politics and growth](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/governance-politics-growth/) - In recent years, there has been an increasing realisation that political institutions and governance matter when explaining economic growth in developing countries. Here, political institutions refer to the process of collective decision-making and the checks on politicians and politically and economically powerful interest groups. Governance refers to the capability of the state to provide public
- [Violence against women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/violence-against-women-and-girls/) - Violence against women and girls (VAWG) is considered one of the most pervasive human rights abuses of our times, affecting more than one in three women globally. VAWG is most likely to be perpetrated by someone known to the victim, such as a family member or intimate partner, and takes many different forms. This includes,
- [Public financial management in decentralised and decentralising environments](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/public-financial-management-in-decentralised-and-decentralising-environments/) - What is public financial management and how is it used in decentralised and decentralising systems? Public financial management (PFM)—the science and art of budgeting, spending, and accounting for public funds—is among the most fundamental elements of public sector reform. PFM not only helps to ensure that there are clearly defined and well applied rules and
- [Violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/violent-extremism/) - ‘Violent extremism’ is rarely defined: neither the United Nations nor the European Union has an official definition. USAID defines it as “advocating, engaging in, preparing, or otherwise supporting ideologically motivated or justified violence to further social, economic or political objectives”. However, this apparently simple and obvious statement conceals a great deal of controversy and uncertainty.
- [Youth and jobs](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/youth-and-jobs/) - When jobs are scarce it is young people who are hit the hardest as they are either unable to enter the workplace or are the first to be fired. According to the World Bank (2015), one third of the world’s 1.8 billion young people are not in employment, education or training (NEET), and only 40%
- [Ageing and development](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/ageing-and-development/) - https://youtu.be/k9nPScNEFdA The world’s population is ageing across all regions of the world. Extraordinary developments in technology, medicine and public hygiene over the last 100 years have resulted in increasing numbers of people living longer than ever before, with better health and the prospect of a more active life long into old age. This trend coupled
- [Children and young people](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/children-and-young-people/) - https://youtu.be/fI_kZMjYlhE Why do children and young people matter in development? Firstly, there are a lot of them – in Sub-Saharan Africa under-15s represent 43% of the population (Population Reference Bureau, 2015). Secondly, they are often disproportionately affected by poverty – in the UK 28% of children live in households below the poverty line (Department of
- [Measuring the performance of PFM systems](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/measuring-the-performance-of-pfm-systems/) - https://youtu.be/Ku3b76Ro5d8 Government budgets and their supporting systems – often referred to as Public Financial Management (PFM) systems – are one of the key tools that governments use to turn policy statements and intentions into the delivery of goods and services. In fact, much of what governments do depends on raising, borrowing and spending public resources.
- [PFM and corruption](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/pfm-and-corruption/) - https://youtu.be/33IOSDllN70 Public Financial Management (PFM) processes – revenue mobilisation (e.g. taxation and customs), budget preparation and resource allocation, budget execution (e.g. procurement and payroll), and the accounting and auditing of government expenditure – are a key focus of donor supported anti-corruption reforms. A focus on the budget and budgetary processes is not surprising given that:
- [Ceasefires](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/ceasefires/) - https://youtu.be/nhkI-5reIrg All peace agreements need to address the question of the cessation of violence and in most cases this is done through a ceasefire of some kind. Typically, conflict parties will seek to put in place mechanisms to immediately stop the violence and prevent its resurgence. These mechanisms will most often enjoy international support (in
- [Taxation, governance and growth](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/taxation-governance-and-growth/) - https://youtu.be/ctawVstHQBI Historically, tax research has been dominated by two questions: how to enhance revenue collection in order to finance redistribution and public goods and services, and how to design tax policy to strengthen incentives for economic growth (Joshi et al. 2014; Moore 2013). However, the past decade has witnessed surging interests in a third possibility:
- [Video of seminar on Politically smart development](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/video-of-seminar-on-politically-smart-development/) - A video of David Booth's GSDRC seminar is now available below. Dr Booth discussed Politically smart development assistance: can it be done? Speaking at the University of Birmingham on 15 October, he drew on his experience and research in the Philippines to explore issues and debates introduced in his Professional Development Reading Pack on 'Thinking and Working Politically'. David Booth is a Senior Research
- [Webinar video: Public Financial Management](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/webinar-24-nov-public-financial-management/) - https://youtu.be/q_jsn-vJf70 Dr Paolo de Renzio (International Budget Partnership) and Prof Dominik Zaum (University of Reading) gave short presentations on transparency, participation and corruption in Public Financial Management. Discussant Dr Simon De Lay (University of Birmingham) drew on his experience and recent research to reflect on issues raised, and participating development practitioners from around the world contributed questions and comments. The webinar was held on
- [Webinar video: Social norms and violence against women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/webinar-social-norms-and-violence-against-women-and-girls/) - https://youtu.be/q99ByZCbPlw Dr Lori Heise (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) and Emma Fulu (the Equality Institute) gave short presentations on social norms and violence against women and girls. They drew on their experience and research to reflect on comments and questions raised by participating development practitioners. Download the presentations here and here. The webinar was held
- [Webinar video: Wellbeing and extreme and persistent poverty](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/webinar-wellbeing-and-extreme-and-persistent-poverty/) - https://youtu.be/T0sfe5RASN0 Prof Sarah White (University of Bath) and Andrew Shepherd (Chronic Poverty Advisory Network) gave presentations on extreme and persistent poverty and wellbeing. They drew on their experience research to reflect on comments and questions raised by participating development practitioners. The webinar was held on 3 March 2016. An audio-only version of the webinar is available
- [Webinar video: Demographic shifts](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/webinar-demographic-shifts/) - https://youtu.be/SAbVBHCI_40 The next decade will see the global population rise by 1 billion. The current youth bulge (there are an estimated 1.5 billion young people in the world today) is expected to give way to a rapidly ageing population by 2050. What does this mean for the development community? Dr Laura Camfield (UEA) and Prof Asghar Zaidi (University
- [Webinar: religion, conflict and violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/webinar-religion-conflict-and-violent-extremism/) - https://youtu.be/Uedj3aOlXxw On May 11 2016, Dr. Sara Silvestri (City University London), Andrew Glazzard and Martine Zeuthen (RUSI) discussed issues raised in their reading packs on religion and conflict and violent extremism. An audio-only version is available below.
- [Peacekeeping](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/peacekeeping/) - https://youtu.be/o9kPNPx7zhM The aim of peacekeeping is to preserve peace, normally after a peace agreement has been achieved. It has evolved from a primarily military activity, observing cease-fires and separation of forces after inter-state conflict, to multidimensional missions taking on a range of civilian tasks. Peacekeeping is conducted by both the United Nations and by regional
- [Media and governance](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/media-and-governance/) - https://youtu.be/Se8tKdg7EpA In fast-changing media and communication environments more people are connected than ever before. While most acknowledge that the influence and impact of changing media and communication on governance outcomes is growing, the degree to which new media landscapes are contributing to more informed, peaceful and accountable societies remains in question. For some, increasingly networked
- [Power, politics and popular mobilisation](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/power-politics-and-popular-mobilisation/) - https://youtu.be/9LtWniQgygw In his book, the Rebirth of History (2012), Alain Badiou observed that “we find ourselves in a time of riots”. Paying attention to contemporary popular uprisings allows us to take the pulse of the street; homing in on people’s grievances and desires, how they conflict and temporarily converge, and how they counter or correspond
- [Governance and service provision](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/governance-and-service-provision/) - https://youtu.be/2ycqRUDQJLY Over the past decade, development professionals have become increasingly aware of the fact that providing better services for the poor is as much about governance as it is about solving technical problems. Building new schools, health centres, and water points is all very well, but if teachers and nurses don’t turn up to work
- [Religion and development](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/religion-and-development/) - https://youtu.be/osamFPEClqE Why would you want to mix religion with development? They appear to be completely different things – at best incompatible; at worst highly combustible. After all some strands of religion have an overtly political agenda, while other strands promote or condone violence, including terrorism. In some instances religions promote discrimination against women, children and
- [Wellbeing](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/wellbeing/) - https://youtu.be/eQQ2SBxUmbY Wellbeing is advocated as a positive, more inclusive approach to development, which goes beyond a narrow focus on policy or programme objectives to comprehend the real impact on people’s lives. Wellbeing is, however, a highly contested term, with different concepts and methods producing quite different results. This briefing provides a guide to the main
- [Social norms](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/social-norms/) - In recent years the development community has witnessed an upsurge of interest in the role that social norms may play in perpetuating a host of harmful practices, especially practices affecting women and girls. There has long been interest in how deeply held beliefs, attitudes, and norms can justify male dominance and reinforce behaviour and institutions that
- [Extreme and persistent poverty](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/extreme-and-persistent-poverty/) - Extreme and persistent poverty is once again a high profile issue thanks to the commitment to end extreme poverty and leave no one behind in the formulation of the Sustainable Development Goals. Given the great difficulty of the task ahead, it will remain so for some years to come. While a lot is known about
- [Inclusive institutions](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/inclusive-institutions/) - https://youtu.be/CPPTe6t0d7g The term ‘inclusive institutions’ does not refer to a clearly defined field of theory or policy within international development, but to a normative sensibility that stands in favour of inclusion as the benchmark against which institutions can be judged and also promoted. Inclusive institutions are usually portrayed as both a means through which inclusive
- [Gender responsive budgeting](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/gender-responsive-budgeting/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vIuXOnH_rc Gender responsive budgeting (GRB) brings together two issues that are not commonly associated with one another: gender equality and public financial management. GRB argues that gender equality principles should be incorporated into all stages of the budget process. GRB initiatives seek to improve the results of budgets in general, and gender equality and women’s
- [Responding to mass atrocities and human rights abuses](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/responding-to-mass-atrocities-and-human-rights-abuses/) - Mass atrocities are generally understood as genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, but many other human rights abuses are committed in conflict-affected contexts. There are a range of responses to these abuses, particularly by national and international actors, constituting international criminal justice and transitional justice. Development actors are increasingly directly involved in managing conflict or
- [Disability and development](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/disability-and-development/) - https://youtu.be/DTT_jKq3zFg More than one billion people (around 15% of the world’s population) are disabled, with 80% of them living in the global South, estimates the first ever World Report on Disability jointly published by the WHO and World Bank in 2011. Furthermore, disabled people are disproportionately represented among the poor, have higher levels of unmet
- [Multidimensional poverty](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/multidimensional-poverty/) - https://youtu.be/O6AIRZOupKQ While people generally recognise poverty instantly when they encounter it, they often find difficulty in saying precisely what it is. Experts share the same difficulty and hence definitions frequently reflect what can most readily be measured. Poverty is commonly taken to be low income and, in global debates, is often indexed by income of
- [Human rights](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/human-rights/) - Human rights emerged as a new field in international development in the 1990s. By 1997, the UN Secretary-General had called on all UN development agencies to mainstream human rights (1997), while development donors and NGOs increasingly committed themselves to a human rights approach. Diverse factors explain this seeming breakthrough of human rights. First, a growing
- [Humanitarian action](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/humanitarian-action/) - https://youtu.be/Qjm6F73oFUw The aim of humanitarian action is to support people affected by conflict and natural disasters – to save lives, alleviate suffering and maintain human dignity during crisis. Humanitarian action can take many forms and has been conceived in many different ways over time. As enshrined in United Nations (UN) Resolution 46/182 (1991), it is
- [Gender and humanitarian issues](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/gender-and-humanitarian-issues/) - A wealth of academic research and UN, INGO, NGO and CSO publications document the differences between the needs, capacities and perceptions of women and men and boys and girls on the types of humanitarian assistance needed in a natural or man-made disaster. When these different perspectives are not taken into account interventions are not effective
- [Gender in development](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/gender-in-development/) - https://youtu.be/yjy-GuTsfx8 Gender inequality matters to development for two reasons. First, it is a justice problem. Ideologies of women’s inferiority are used to justify serious human rights abuses including female infanticide, child marriage, female genital mutilation, sexual violence, and deprivation of equal access to health care, education, property, employment and pay. Second, gender inequality is developmentally
- [Social policy](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/social-policy/) - https://youtu.be/cNOG_meaFc0 The development of social policy as a discipline is associated with the emergence of welfare states in European countries. This reading guide provides the user with some key texts and narrative. The development of European countries involved the progressive extension of rights, civil rights in the 18th century, political rights in the 19th century,
- [Public financial management](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/public-financial-management/) - https://youtu.be/rMNYF_EXKfE https://youtu.be/VJRzOrx-N38 PFM: Why does it matter and how best to improve it? What is Public Financial Management (PFM)? PFM refers to the set of laws, rules, systems and processes used by sovereign nations (and sub-national governments), to mobilise revenue, allocate public funds, undertake public spending, account for funds and audit results. It encompasses a
- [Elections and democracy support](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/elections-and-democracy-support/) - https://youtu.be/tEKeoqERf0I The two main types of international elections support—technical aid for election administration and election monitoring—both got significantly underway in the second half of the 1980s and then mushroomed in the 1990s as democracy spread globally. Both remain active areas today though they are not, as many people in the developing world often think, the
- [Horizontal inequalities](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/horizontal-inequalities/) - https://youtu.be/tNXqXIuLiQ4 (This 15-minute presentation accompanying the reading pack was recorded at the GSDRC Seminar on Conflict and Development, London, 23 March 2015.) Civil wars are one of the main sources of state fragility, low incomes and poor human development. Hence, policies to prevent conflict must be a high priority for those concerned with promoting development
- [Decentralisation](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/decentralisation/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-NyIUtIfqcs What is meant by decentralisation and why is it so popular? Some form of public sector decentralisation is nearly universal practice. Is there clear justification? What is known about how well it works? How can policymakers and practitioners try to better design and implement decentralisation so as to reap potential benefits and limit potential
- [Jobs, unemployment and violence](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/jobs-unemployment-and-violence/) - https://youtu.be/VkpdWbKMAWk (This 10-minute presentation accompanying the reading pack was recorded at the GSDRC Seminar on Conflict and Development, London, 23 March 2015.) The notion that unemployment is a strong probable cause or motivating factor behind violence and violent conflict is remarkably pervasive in international development. It is believed that unemployment triggers participation in insurgencies, prompts
- [Legitimacy, statebuilding and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/legitimacy-statebuilding-and-conflict/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Ejxkg9NkFc (This 10-minute presentation accompanying the reading pack was recorded at the GSDRC Seminar on Conflict and Development, London, 23 March 2015.) Building legitimacy is widely considered to be a central aspect of statebuilding efforts in fragile and conflict-affected states. It features prominently in the statebuilding policies of donors and the G7+ alike. In the
- [Crime and conflict](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/crime-and-conflict/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hlSzOCnRnqs Practitioners increasingly recognise that they need a better understanding of the link between crime and conflict. Many informal accounts suggest the political power of organised crime groups in violent and fragile contexts is growing. In the absence of functioning institutions and strong state-society relations, organised crime groups infiltrate local and national political systems to
- [Thinking and working politically](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/thinking-and-working-politically/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpzef0u6iHI Development assistance works best, and is least liable to do harm, when the people designing it are thinking and working politically (TWP). This thought has been around for some time, but what it implies in practice has not always been clear. Big steps have been taken to encourage donor agency staff to think politically
- [Acceptance strategies in conflict](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/acceptance-strategies-in-conflict/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_152aSKxZnU Acceptance is a risk management strategy based on reducing threats to aid workers by reducing the motivation of others to harm them. The thinking is that if aid work is viewed positively, it will generate goodwill towards aid workers and allow them to work safely. Degrees of acceptance can vary, ranging from a high
- [Climate finance and public finance management](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/climate-finance-and-public-finance-management/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BaygJnlFo0Y Much attention has been directed at the international commitments to assist developing countries respond to climate change. This is reflected in the debate over the commitments made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: at the UNFCCC negotiations in Copenhagen in 2009, developed countries committed to jointly mobilise $100 billion climate finance
- [Transparency and participation in public financial management](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/transparency-and-participation-in-public-financial-management/) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=27TGVw7ozlE&feature=youtu.be The idea that citizens should have access to detailed information about how governments use public resources is not a new one. In fact, it has a long and distinguished history. As far back as 350 BC, Aristotle’s Politics suggested that ‘… to protect the Treasury from being defrauded, let all money be issued openly in
- [Public financial management in fragile states](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/public-financial-management-in-fragile-states/) - https://youtu.be/qDepYqZaaXc Effective Public Financial Management (PFM) in fragile states is a critical foundation for basic economic governance and in establishing the performance, legitimacy and accountability of functional states. Extreme poverty is increasingly located in these countries, which face multiple challenges of ongoing conflict, instability and resource constraints, both financial and human. A June 2015 summary
- [Public service reform](https://gsdrc.org/professional-dev/public-service-reform/) - https://youtu.be/h5IlU2Mymxc The focus in this Pack is on action: on the public service reform intervention, conceived as an exercise in helping. The readings included in this pack have been chosen to be interesting and fresh rather than comprehensive; that is, to stimulate thinking rather than necessarily to ‘cover all the bases’ in public service reform

## News

- [Safety, security & justice topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/news-second-test/) - What do we know about what has – or hasn't – worked in safety, security and justice programming, and where?
- [Social Protection Topic Guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/social-protection-topic-guide/) - This guide provides an overview of social protection concepts, approaches, issues, debates and the evidence.
- [Conflict analysis topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/climate-change-social-development/)
- [Elections & democracy support reading pack](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/test/) - Thomas Carothers introduces key issues
- [Conflict, instability, and  resilience in Nigeria](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/conflict-instability-and-resilience-in-nigeria/) - At the heart of Nigeria’s instability is its oil-dependent political-economy which has cultivated a national and international elite embedded in a rent-seeking system of governance.
- [Digital tools for women's safety](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/violent-extremism/) - Two recent Helpdesk reports explore the role of digital tools in supporting women's safety.
- [Countering violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/disability-inclusion/)
- [Urban governance](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/state-business-relations/)
- [Crime and conflict: reading pack](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/crime-and-conflict-reading-pack/) - ‘Violent extremism’ is rarely defined: neither the United Nations nor the European Union has an official definition. USAID defines it as “advocating, engaging in, preparing, or otherwise supporting ideologically motivated or justified violence to further social, economic or political objectives”. However, this apparently simple and obvious statement conceals a great deal of controversy and uncertainty.
- [Webinar video: Social norms and violence against women and girls](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/webinar-social-norms-and-violence-against-women-and-girls/) - Missed the 9 Feb webinar? Video available here
- [Webinar video: Public Financial Management](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/webinar-24-nov-public-financial-management/) - Dr Paolo de Renzio, Prof Dominik Zaum and Dr Simon De Lay discuss corruption, transparency and participation in Public Financial Management.
- [Social development and human development: New topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/social-development-and-human-development-topic-guide/)
- [Public financial management evidence mapping](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/evidence-mapping-on-pfm/) - This rigorous review maps the evidence on the effects of PFM interventions in low and middle income countries.
- [Human rights: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/human-rights-topic-guide/)
- [Welcome to our new website](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/welcome-to-our-new-website/) - Our new website aims to help you find what you need more easily. You can now browse all content by theme, search all our publications from a single page, and see suggestions for recent 'related content' that may also be of interest to you. We'll also be adding extra filter options to help refine search results further.
- [The legitimacy of states and armed non-state actors: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/the-legitimacy-of-states-and-armed-non-state-actors/)
- [Disaster resilience: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/disaster-resilience-topic-guide/)
- [GSDRC Seminar on Mass atrocities](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/gsdrc-seminar-mass-atrocities/) - This seminar was held on 8 Oct 5-6pm, with Prof Chandra Sriram speaking on Mass atrocities in conflict-affected settings. The video will be made available online shortly. Chandra Sriram (Professor of International Law and International Relations, University of East London) drew on her research in Sierra Leone, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Colombia as she explored
- [Job vacancies at GSDRC](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/job-vacancies-at-gsdrc/) - Are you an early- or mid- career researcher with excellent communications skills? We are looking for two research fellows with a background in social development or governance to join our team at the University of Birmingham. These exciting and unusual roles involve conducting desk-based research and analysis for policymakers, and offer a great opportunity for
- [The social impact of private sector development: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/our-latest-helpdesk-report-on-livelihoods-in-fragile-contexts/)
- [Economic development in fragile and conflict-affected states](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/economic-development-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states/)
- [Inclusive institutions: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/inclusive-institutions-topic-guide/)
- [Public sector institutional reform: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/our-topic-guide-on-conflict-sensitivity/)
- [Andrew Lawson on PFM: new videos](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/civil-service-reform/)
- [Problem-driven iterative approaches: helpdesk report](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/problem-driven-iterative-approaches-governance-reform-helpdesk-report/)
- [Urbanisation and conflict in Pakistan: helpdesk report](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/urbanisation-and-conflict-in-pakistan-helpdesk-report/)
- [Social protection, climate change adaptation & DRR: literature review](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/social-protection-climate-change-adaptation-and-disaster-risk-reduction-literature-review/)
- [Monitoring & evaluation: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/monitoring-evaluation-topic-guide/)
- [Designing and monitoring PFM reform: helpdesk report](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/designing-and-monitoring-pfm-reform-helpdesk-report/)
- [Humanitarian action: reading pack](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/humanitarian-action-reading-pack/)
- [Conflict analysis of Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/conflict-analysis-of-iraq/)
- [Horizontal inequalities: reading pack](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/horizontal-inequalities-reading-pack/)
- [Gender: topic guide](https://gsdrc.org/news-item/gender-topic-guide/)

## Themes

- [Uncategorized](https://gsdrc.org/category/uncategorized/)
- [Access to justice](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/security-justice/access-to-justice/)
- [Access to services](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/service-delivery/access-to-services/)
- [Accountability](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/accountability/)
- [Aid Instruments](https://gsdrc.org/category/aid-instruments/)
- [Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/)
- [M&E approaches](https://gsdrc.org/category/monitoring-and-evaluation/approaches-to-evaluation/)
- [Budget support & SWAps](https://gsdrc.org/category/aid-instruments/budget-support-swaps/)
- [Capacity building](https://gsdrc.org/category/aid-instruments/capacity-building/)
- [Children / youth](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/children-youth/)
- [Citizenship](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/citizenship/)
- [Civil service reform](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/civil-service-reform/)
- [Civil society & social movements](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/civil-society-social-movements/)
- [Civil society partnerships](https://gsdrc.org/category/aid-instruments/civil-society-partnerships/)
- [Class / caste](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/class-caste/)
- [Climate change](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/climate-change/)
- [Communication & behaviour change](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/institutions-social-norms/communication-behaviour-change/)
- [Communication & governance](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/communication-governance/)
- [Complex emergencies](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/humanitarian-response/complex-emergencies/)
- [Complexity & systems thinking](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/complexity-systems-thinking/)
- [Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/)
- [Conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/conflict-analysis/)
- [Conflict prevention](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/conflict-prevention/)
- [Conflict response](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/conflict-response/)
- [Corruption](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/corruption/)
- [Crime & policing](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/security-justice/crime-policing/)
- [Decentralisation & local governance](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/decentralisation-local-governance/)
- [Democracy](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/democracy-elections/democracy/)
- [Democracy & elections](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/democracy-elections/)
- [Development Pressures](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/)
- [Diaspora](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/migration-diaspora/diaspora/)
- [Disabilities](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/disabilities/)
- [Disasters](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/humanitarian-response/disasters/)
- [Economic growth](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/supporting-economic-development/economic-growth/)
- [Education](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/service-delivery/education/)
- [Elections](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/democracy-elections/elections/)
- [Extreme poverty](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/poverty-wellbeing/extreme-poverty/)
- [Food security](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/food-security/)
- [Fragility](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/fragility/)
- [Gender](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/gender/)
- [Gender-based violence & VAWG](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/gender/gender-based-violence-vawg/)
- [Governance](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/)
- [Health](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/service-delivery/health/)
- [Human rights](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/security-justice/human-rights/)
- [Humanitarian Issues](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/)
- [Humanitarian financing](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/humanitarian-financing/)
- [Humanitarian response](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/humanitarian-response/)
- [Impacts of conflict](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/impacts-of-conflict/)
- [Inclusive growth](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/supporting-economic-development/inclusive-growth/)
- [Indicators](https://gsdrc.org/category/monitoring-and-evaluation/indicators/)
- [Inequalities & exclusion](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/)
- [Informal social protection](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/social-protection/informal-social-protection/)
- [Institutions & social norms](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/institutions-social-norms/)
- [Jobs & livelihoods](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/poverty-wellbeing/jobs-livelihoods/)
- [Labour market interventions](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/social-protection/labour-market-interventions/)
- [Legal pluralism](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/security-justice/legal-pluralism/)
- [Legitimacy](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/legitimacy/)
- [Men & masculinities](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/gender/men-masculinities/)
- [Migration](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/migration-diaspora/migration/)
- [Migration & diaspora](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/migration-diaspora/)
- [Multidimensional poverty](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/poverty-wellbeing/multidimensional-poverty/)
- [Multilateral aid](https://gsdrc.org/category/aid-instruments/multilateral-aid/)
- [Natural resource management](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/supporting-economic-development/natural-resource-management/)
- [Non-democratic systems](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/democracy-elections/non-democratic-systems/)
- [Non-state providers](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/service-delivery/non-state-providers/)
- [Older people](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/older-people/)
- [Learning](https://gsdrc.org/category/monitoring-and-evaluation/learning/)
- [PEA / Thinking & working politically](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/pea-thinking-working-politically/)
- [Parliamentary strengthening](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/democracy-elections/parliamentary-strengthening/)
- [Participatory approaches](https://gsdrc.org/category/monitoring-and-evaluation/approaches-to-evaluation/participatory-approaches/)
- [Peace agreements](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/conflict-response/peace-agreements/)
- [Peacebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/peacebuilding/)
- [Peacekeeping](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/conflict-response/peacekeeping/)
- [Penal systems](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/security-justice/penal-systems/)
- [Political parties](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/democracy-elections/political-parties/)
- [Political settlements](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/political-settlements/)
- [Population growth](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/population-growth/)
- [Poverty & wellbeing](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/poverty-wellbeing/)
- [Private sector partnerships](https://gsdrc.org/category/aid-instruments/private-sector-partnerships/)
- [Problem-driven iterative adaptation](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/complexity-systems-thinking/problem-driven-iterative-adaptation/)
- [Public sector management](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/)
- [Race & ethnicity](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/race-ethnicity/)
- [Radicalisation & violent extremism](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/conflict-analysis/radicalisation-violent-extremism/)
- [Recovery & reconstruction](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/recovery-reconstruction/)
- [Refugees/IDPs](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/refugeesidps/)
- [Religion](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/religion/)
- [Results-based approaches](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/results-based-approaches/)
- [Rights-based approaches](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/rights-based-approaches/)
- [Risk & resilience](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/risk-resilience/)
- [Security & justice](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/security-justice/)
- [Security sector](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/security-justice/security-sector/)
- [Service delivery](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/service-delivery/)
- [Sexualities](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/gender/sexualities/)
- [Social Development](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/)
- [Social assistance](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/social-protection/social-assistance/)
- [Social insurance](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/social-protection/social-insurance/)
- [Social protection](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/social-protection/)
- [Spatial factors](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/inequalities-exclusion/spatial-factors/)
- [State-business relations](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/supporting-economic-development/state-business-relations/)
- [State-society relations](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/)
- [Statebuilding](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/statebuilding/)
- [Supporting economic development](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/supporting-economic-development/)
- [Taxation](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/taxation/)
- [Technical assistance](https://gsdrc.org/category/aid-instruments/technical-assistance/)
- [Theories of change](https://gsdrc.org/category/approaches/theories-of-change/)
- [Transition to development](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/recovery-reconstruction/transition-to-development/)
- [Transitional justice](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/peacebuilding/transitional-justice/)
- [Transparency](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/transparency/)
- [Urbanisation](https://gsdrc.org/category/development-pressures/urbanisation/)
- [Value for money](https://gsdrc.org/category/monitoring-and-evaluation/approaches-to-evaluation/value-for-money/)
- [Voice & participation in politics](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/voice-participation-in-politics/)
- [WASH](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/service-delivery/wash/)
- [Women's economic participation](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/gender/womens-economic-participation/)
- [Women's political participation](https://gsdrc.org/category/social-development/gender/womens-political-participation/)
- [Public financial management and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/public-financial-management-and-accountability/)
- [Conflict sensitivity](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/conflict-sensitivity/)
- [Post conflict reconstruction](https://gsdrc.org/category/humanitarian-issues/recovery-reconstruction/post-conflict-reconstruction/)
- [Voice and accountability](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/state-society-relations/voice-and-accountability/)
- [Budgets and planning](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/public-sector-management/budgets-and-planning/)
- [Monitoring and evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/category/monitoring-and-evaluation/)
- [DDR](https://gsdrc.org/category/conflict/peacebuilding/disarmament-demobilisation-and-reintegration-ddr/)
- [Trade](https://gsdrc.org/category/trade/)
- [Trade](https://gsdrc.org/category/governance/supporting-economic-development/trade-supporting-economic-development/)
- [COVID-19](https://gsdrc.org/category/covid-19/)
- [News & commentary](https://gsdrc.org/category/newscommentaries/)

## Project

- [K4D](https://gsdrc.org/tag/k4d/)
- [INCLUDE](https://gsdrc.org/tag/include/)
- [XCEPT](https://gsdrc.org/tag/xcept/)
- [EXCEPT](https://gsdrc.org/tag/except/)
- [K4DD](https://gsdrc.org/tag/k4dd/)
- [UNU-wider](https://gsdrc.org/tag/unu-wider/)

## Country of Focus

- [Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/afghanistan/)
- [Albania](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/albania/)
- [Algeria](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/algeria/)
- [Angola](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/angola/)
- [Argentina](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/argentina/)
- [Armenia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/armenia/)
- [Australia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/australia/)
- [Austria](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/austria/)
- [Azerbaijan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/azerbaijan/)
- [Bahrain](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/bahrain/)
- [Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/bangladesh/)
- [Barbados](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/barbados/)
- [Belarus](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/belarus/)
- [Belgium](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/belgium/)
- [Benin](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/benin/)
- [Bhutan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/bhutan/)
- [Bolivia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/bolivia/)
- [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/bosnia-and-herzegovina/)
- [Botswana](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/botswana/)
- [Brazil](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/brazil/)
- [Bulgaria](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/bulgaria/)
- [Burkina Faso](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/burkina-faso/)
- [Burundi](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/burundi/)
- [Cambodia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/cambodia/)
- [Cameroon](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/cameroon/)
- [Canada](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/canada/)
- [Cape Verde](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/cape-verde/)
- [Central African Republic](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/central-african-republic/)
- [Chad](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/chad/)
- [Chile](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/chile/)
- [China](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/china/)
- [Colombia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/colombia/)
- [Congo](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/congo/)
- [Costa Rica](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/costa-rica/)
- [Cote d'Ivoire](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/cote-divoire/)
- [Croatia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/croatia/)
- [Cuba](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/cuba/)
- [Cyprus](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/cyprus/)
- [Czech Republic](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/czech-republic/)
- [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/democratic-republic-of-the-congo/)
- [Denmark](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/denmark/)
- [Djibouti](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/djibouti/)
- [Dominican Republic](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/dominican-republic/)
- [Ecuador](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/ecuador/)
- [Egypt](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/egypt/)
- [El Salvador](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/el-salvador/)
- [Equatorial Guinea](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/equatorial-guinea/)
- [Eritrea](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/eritrea/)
- [Estonia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/estonia/)
- [Ethiopia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/ethiopia/)
- [Fiji](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/fiji/)
- [Finland](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/finland/)
- [France](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/france/)
- [Gabon](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/gabon/)
- [Gambia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/gambia/)
- [Georgia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/georgia/)
- [Germany](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/germany/)
- [Ghana](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/ghana/)
- [Greece](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/greece/)
- [Guatemala](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/guatemala/)
- [Guinea](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/guinea/)
- [Guinea-Bissau](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/guinea-bissau/)
- [Guyana](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/guyana/)
- [Haiti](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/haiti/)
- [Honduras](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/honduras/)
- [Hungary](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/hungary/)
- [India](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/india/)
- [Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/indonesia/)
- [Iran](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/iran/)
- [Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/iraq/)
- [Ireland](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/ireland/)
- [Israel](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/israel/)
- [Italy](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/italy/)
- [Jamaica](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/jamaica/)
- [Japan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/japan/)
- [Jordan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/jordan/)
- [Kazakhstan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/kazakhstan/)
- [Kenya](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/kenya/)
- [Kiribati](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/kiribati/)
- [Kosovo](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/kosovo/)
- [Kuwait](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/kuwait/)
- [Kyrgyzstan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/kyrgyzstan/)
- [Lao People's Democratic Republic](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/lao-peoples-democratic-republic/)
- [Latvia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/latvia/)
- [Lebanon](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/lebanon/)
- [Lesotho](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/lesotho/)
- [Liberia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/liberia/)
- [Libya](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/libya/)
- [Lithuania](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/lithuania/)
- [Macedonia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/macedonia/)
- [Madagascar](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/madagascar/)
- [Malawi](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/malawi/)
- [Malaysia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/malaysia/)
- [Maldives](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/maldives/)
- [Mali](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/mali/)
- [Malta](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/malta/)
- [Marshall Islands](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/marshall-islands/)
- [Mauritania](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/mauritania/)
- [Mauritius](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/mauritius/)
- [Mexico](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/mexico/)
- [Micronesia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/micronesia/)
- [Moldova](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/moldova/)
- [Mongolia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/mongolia/)
- [Montenegro](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/montenegro/)
- [Montserrat](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/montserrat/)
- [Morocco](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/morocco/)
- [Mozambique](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/mozambique/)
- [Myanmar](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/myanmar/)
- [Namibia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/namibia/)
- [Nauru](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/nauru/)
- [Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/nepal/)
- [Netherlands](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/netherlands/)
- [New Zealand](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/new-zealand/)
- [Nicaragua](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/nicaragua/)
- [Niger](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/niger/)
- [Nigeria](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/nigeria/)
- [Niue](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/niue/)
- [North Korea](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/north-korea/)
- [Norway](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/norway/)
- [Oman](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/oman/)
- [Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/pakistan/)
- [Palestine](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/palestine/)
- [Panama](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/panama/)
- [Papua New Guinea](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/papua-new-guinea/)
- [Paraguay](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/paraguay/)
- [Peru](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/peru/)
- [Philippines](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/philippines/)
- [Poland](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/poland/)
- [Qatar](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/qatar/)
- [Romania](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/romania/)
- [Russian Federation](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/russian-federation/)
- [Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/rwanda/)
- [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/saint-kitts-and-nevis/)
- [Saint Lucia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/saint-lucia/)
- [Samoa](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/samoa/)
- [Sao Tome and Principe](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/sao-tome-and-principe/)
- [Saudi Arabia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/saudi-arabia/)
- [Senegal](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/senegal/)
- [Serbia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/serbia/)
- [Seychelles](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/seychelles/)
- [Sierra Leone](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/sierra-leone/)
- [Singapore](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/singapore/)
- [Slovenia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/slovenia/)
- [Solomon Islands](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/solomon-islands/)
- [Somalia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/somalia/)
- [South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/south-africa/)
- [South Korea](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/south-korea/)
- [South Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/south-sudan/)
- [Spain](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/spain/)
- [Sri Lanka](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/sri-lanka/)
- [Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/sudan/)
- [Swaziland](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/swaziland/)
- [Sweden](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/sweden/)
- [Switzerland](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/switzerland/)
- [Syria](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/syria/)
- [Taiwan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/taiwan/)
- [Tajikistan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/tajikistan/)
- [Tanzania](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/tanzania/)
- [Thailand](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/thailand/)
- [Timor-Leste](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/timor-leste/)
- [Togo](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/togo/)
- [Tonga](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/tonga/)
- [Trinidad and Tobago](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/trinidad-and-tobago/)
- [Tunisia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/tunisia/)
- [Turkey](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/turkey/)
- [Turkmenistan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/turkmenistan/)
- [Tuvalu](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/tuvalu/)
- [Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/uganda/)
- [Ukraine](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/ukraine/)
- [United Arab Emirates](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/united-arab-emirates/)
- [United Kingdom](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/united-kingdom/)
- [United States of America](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/united-states-of-america/)
- [Uruguay](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/uruguay/)
- [Uzbekistan](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/uzbekistan/)
- [Vanuatu](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/vanuatu/)
- [Venezuela](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/venezuela/)
- [Viet Nam](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/viet-nam/)
- [Western Sahara](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/western-sahara/)
- [Yemen](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/yemen/)
- [Zambia](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/zambia/)
- [Zimbabwe](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/zimbabwe/)
- [East Timor](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/east-timor/)
- [Security & justice](https://gsdrc.org/country_focus/security-justice/)

## Region

- [Africa](https://gsdrc.org/region/africa/)
- [Americas](https://gsdrc.org/region/americas/)
- [Asia](https://gsdrc.org/region/asia/)
- [Caribbean](https://gsdrc.org/region/caribbean/)
- [Central America](https://gsdrc.org/region/central-america/)
- [Central Asia](https://gsdrc.org/region/central-asia/)
- [Eastern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/region/eastern-africa/)
- [Eastern Asia](https://gsdrc.org/region/eastern-asia/)
- [Eastern Europe](https://gsdrc.org/region/eastern-europe/)
- [Europe](https://gsdrc.org/region/europe/)
- [Latin America and the Caribbean](https://gsdrc.org/region/latin-america-and-the-caribbean/)
- [Melanesia](https://gsdrc.org/region/melanesia/)
- [Micronesia](https://gsdrc.org/region/micronesia/)
- [Middle Africa](https://gsdrc.org/region/middle-africa/)
- [Northern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/region/northern-africa/)
- [Northern America](https://gsdrc.org/region/northern-america/)
- [Northern Europe](https://gsdrc.org/region/northern-europe/)
- [Oceania](https://gsdrc.org/region/oceania/)
- [Polynesia](https://gsdrc.org/region/polynesia/)
- [South America](https://gsdrc.org/region/south-america/)
- [South-Eastern Asia](https://gsdrc.org/region/south-eastern-asia/)
- [Southern Africa](https://gsdrc.org/region/southern-africa/)
- [Southern Asia](https://gsdrc.org/region/southern-asia/)
- [Southern Europe](https://gsdrc.org/region/southern-europe/)
- [Western Africa](https://gsdrc.org/region/western-africa/)
- [Western Asia](https://gsdrc.org/region/western-asia/)
- [Western Europe](https://gsdrc.org/region/western-europe/)

## Publication types

- [Helpdesk Reports](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/helpdesk/)
- [Conflict Analyses](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/conflict-analyses/)
- [Literature Reviews](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/literature-reviews/)
- [Topic Guides](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/topic-guide/)
- [E-Learning](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/e-learning/)
- [Library](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/library/)
- [Working Papers](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/working-papers/)
- [Blog](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_pub_type/blog/)

## GSDRC Authors

- [Sara Pantuliano](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sara-pantuliano/)
- [Willy McCourt](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/willy-mccourt/)
- [Becky Carter](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/becky-carter/)
- [Elisa Lopez-Lucia](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/elisa-lopez-lucia/)
- [Róisín Hinds](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/roisin-hinds/)
- [Brigitte Rohwerder](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/brigitte-rohwerder/) - Brigitte is a GSDRC Research Officer at the Institute of Development Studies (Brighton, UK). Previously, she worked as a researcher for the Post-War Reconstruction and Development Unit (PRDU) on evaluations for DFID, UNICEF and the Government of Afghanistan. She has also worked on issues related to disability inclusion, education, refugee return, disaster preparation and response. She holds an MA in Post War Recovery Studies from the University of York.
- [Evie Browne](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/evie-browne/)
- [Siân Herbert](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sian-herbert/)
- [Sumedh Rao](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sumedh-rao/)
- [Huma Haider](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/huma-haider/)
- [Emilie Combaz](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/emilie-combaz/)
- [Brian Lucas](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/brian-lucas/)
- [Freyja Oddsdóttir](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/freyja-oddsdottir/)
- [Anna Strachan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/anna-strachan/)
- [Shivit Bakrania](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/shivit-bakrania/)
- [Claire Mcloughlin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/claire-mcloughlin/)
- [Josephine Tsui](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/josephine-tsui/)
- [Oliver Walton](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/oliver-walton/)
- [Jenny Birchall](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jenny-birchall/)
- [Anna Orrnert](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/anna-orrnert/)
- [IDS HDRC](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ids-hdrc/)
- [Freida M'Cormack](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/freida-mcormack/)
- [Erika Fraser](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/erika-fraser/)
- [Ann Kangas](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ann-kangas/)
- [Seema Khan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/seema-khan/)
- [Emma Broadbent](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/emma-broadbent/)
- [Andrew McDevitt](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/andrew-mcdevitt/)
- [Zoe Scott](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/zoe-scott/)
- [Tom Hewitt](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/tom-hewitt/)
- [Pauline Oosterhoff](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/pauline-oosterhoff/)
- [Anne Marie Goetz](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/anne-marie-goetz/)
- [Anna Louise Strachan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/anna-louise-strachan/)
- [Sarah O'Connor](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sarah-oconnor/)
- [John Spall](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/john-spall/)
- [Claire Ely](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/claire-ely/)
- [L Curry](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/l-curry/)
- [Paolo de Renzio](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/paolo-de-renzio/)
- [Neil Bird](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/neil-bird/)
- [Ashley Jackson](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ashley-jackson/)
- [Maja Bosnic](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/maja-bosnic/)
- [David Booth](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/david-booth/)
- [Achim Wennmann](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/achim-wennmann/)
- [Dominik Zaum](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dominik-zaum/)
- [Christopher Cramer](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/christopher-cramer/)
- [Paul Smoke](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/paul-smoke/)
- [Frances Stewart](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/frances-stewart/)
- [Thomas Carothers](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/thomas-carothers/)
- [Andrew Lawson](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/andrew-lawson/)
- [Armando Barrientos](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/armando-barrientos/)
- [Nathalia Dukhan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/nathalia-dukhan/)
- [Lucy Earle](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lucy-earle/)
- [Anuradha Joshi](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/anuradha-joshi/)
- [Shiv Bakrania](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/shiv-bakrania/)
- [Simon Gill](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/simon-gill/)
- [Sarah C. White](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sarah-c-white/)
- [Seema Khan; Emilie Combaz; Erika McAslan Fraser](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/seema-khan-emilie-combaz-erika-mcaslan-fraser/)
- [Zoë Scott; Claire Mcloughlin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/zoe-scott-claire-mcloughlin/)
- [Sarah Whitmore](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sarah-whitmore/)
- [Kyle Alexander](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kyle-alexander/)
- [Jonathan Di John; James Putzel](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jonathan-di-john-james-putzel/)
- [Huma Haider; Claire Mcloughlin; Zoë Scott](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/huma-haider-claire-mcloughlin-zoe-scott/)
- [Huma Haider; Brigitte Rohwerder](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/huma-haider-brigitte-rohwerder/)
- [Sumedh Rao; Zoë Scott; Munawwar Alam](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sumedh-rao-zoe-scott-munawwar-alam/)
- [Ann Kangas; Huma Haider; Erika Fraser; Evie Browne](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ann-kangas-huma-haider-erika-fraser-evie-browne/)
- [Jo Crichton; Huma Haider; Ellie Chowns; Evie Browne](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jo-crichton-huma-haider-ellie-chowns-evie-browne/)
- [Huma Haider; Anna Louise Strachan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/huma-haider-anna-louise-strachan/)
- [Emilie Combaz; Claire Mcloughlin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/emilie-combaz-claire-mcloughlin/)
- [Evie Browne; Huma Haider; Freyja Oddsdóttir; Brigitte Rohwerder; Anna Louise Strachan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/evie-browne-huma-haider-freyja-oddsdottir-brigitte-rohwerder-anna-louise-strachan/)
- [Evie Browne; Jonathan Fisher](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/evie-browne-jonathan-fisher/)
- [Siân Herbert; Nathalia Dukhan; Marielle Debos](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sian-herbert-nathalia-dukhan-marielle-debos/)
- [Huma Haider; Sumedh Rao](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/huma-haider-sumedh-rao/)
- [Lucy Earle; Zoe Scott](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lucy-earle-zoe-scott/)
- [Shiv Bakrania; Brian Lucas](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/shiv-bakrania-brian-lucas/)
- [Sabine Garbarino; Jeremy Holland](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sabine-garbarino-jeremy-holland/)
- [Richard Batley; Claire Mcloughlin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/richard-batley-claire-mcloughlin/)
- [Sarah Ladbury; Seema Khan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sarah-ladbury-seema-khan/)
- [Maria Allison](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/maria-allison/)
- [Tori Holmes](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/tori-holmes/)
- [Cheryl Brown](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/cheryl-brown/)
- [Charmaine Peters](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/charmaine-peters/)
- [Melanie Tate](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/melanie-tate/)
- [Serguei Cheikhetov](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/serguei-cheikhetov/)
- [Inga Pavlovaite](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/inga-pavlovaite/)
- [Sophie Jenks](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sophie-jenks/)
- [Thomas Papworth](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/thomas-papworth/)
- [Sally Irgin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sally-irgin/)
- [Ursula Grant](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ursula-grant/)
- [Nicola Pratt](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/nicola-pratt/)
- [Dominique Moran](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dominique-moran/)
- [Julie Gifford](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/julie-gifford/)
- [Apostol Apostolov](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/apostol-apostolov/)
- [James Wilmore](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/james-wilmore/)
- [Lorelei Silvester](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lorelei-silvester/)
- [Lara Green](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lara-green/)
- [Charlotte Vaillant](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/charlotte-vaillant/)
- [Jane Belton](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jane-belton/)
- [Catriona Bass](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/catriona-bass/)
- [Frances Hill](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/frances-hill/)
- [Chloe Dunnett](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/chloe-dunnett/)
- [Lisa Burroughes](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lisa-burroughes/)
- [Vishal Ramduny](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/vishal-ramduny/)
- [Mick Moore & Naomi Hossain](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/mick-moore-naomi-hossain/)
- [Gasser Abdel-Razek](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/gasser-abdel-razek/)
- [Savera Hayat](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/savera-hayat/)
- [Linda Mapp](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/linda-mapp/)
- [Kim Tan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kim-tan/)
- [Tom Papworth](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/tom-papworth/)
- [J Adejumo](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/j-adejumo/)
- [Fiona Charlesworth](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/fiona-charlesworth/)
- [L Oehlmann](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/l-oehlmann/)
- [Z Csedo](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/z-csedo/)
- [Joel Cutting](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/joel-cutting/)
- [M Buckley](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/m-buckley/)
- [Claudia Acuna](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/claudia-acuna/)
- [C Galvin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/c-galvin/)
- [S Tolfree](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/s-tolfree/)
- [Sophie de Rivaz](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sophie-de-rivaz/)
- [Megan Rowling](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/megan-rowling/)
- [Nat McBride](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/nat-mcbride/)
- [Laura Fano](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/laura-fano/)
- [Clare Creo](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/clare-creo/)
- [Anthea Connolly](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/anthea-connolly/)
- [David Bek](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/david-bek/)
- [David Hirst](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/david-hirst/)
- [Rebecca Carter](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/rebecca-carter/)
- [Natalee Mousley](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/natalee-mousley/)
- [P Metcalfe](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/p-metcalfe/)
- [Leah Murphy](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/leah-murphy/)
- [S Unsworth](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/s-unsworth/)
- [A Lindley](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/a-lindley/)
- [Rebecca Shah](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/rebecca-shah/)
- [S Rowbottom](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/s-rowbottom/)
- [Elinor Wakefield](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/elinor-wakefield/)
- [Elena Vila Moret](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/elena-vila-moret/)
- [Stephanee Mousley](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/stephanee-mousley/)
- [Wendy Hamilton](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/wendy-hamilton/)
- [Zlata Filipovic](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/zlata-filipovic/)
- [Orla Sheehy](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/orla-sheehy/)
- [Sarah Harris](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sarah-harris/)
- [Lillian Strand](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lillian-strand/)
- [Roberta Zavoretti](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/roberta-zavoretti/)
- [Helen Richards](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/helen-richards/)
- [Isabel Andrews](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/isabel-andrews/)
- [Andrew Furlong](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/andrew-furlong/)
- [Katie Oliver](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/katie-oliver/)
- [Anuradha Awasthi](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/anuradha-awasthi/)
- [Supriti Bezbaruah](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/supriti-bezbaruah/)
- [Ben Silverstone](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ben-silverstone/)
- [Matthew Brennan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/matthew-brennan/)
- [Abigail Laing](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/abigail-laing/)
- [Nick Keehan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/nick-keehan/)
- [Kate Scrivens](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kate-scrivens/)
- [Ruth McCormack](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ruth-mccormack/)
- [Bethan Harries](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/bethan-harries/)
- [Susan Michael](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/susan-michael/)
- [Pamela Atanga](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/pamela-atanga/)
- [Tim Fisken](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/tim-fisken/)
- [D Blackburn](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/d-blackburn/)
- [Ross Perlin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ross-perlin/)
- [Noor Salik](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/noor-salik/)
- [Graeme Ramshaw](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/graeme-ramshaw/)
- [Alina Rocha Menocal](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/alina-rocha-menocal/)
- [Audrey Nganwa](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/audrey-nganwa/)
- [Stephen Westmoreland](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/stephen-westmoreland/)
- [Clare Rudebeck](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/clare-rudebeck/)
- [Jennifer Thompson](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jennifer-thompson/)
- [Eleanor Chowns](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/eleanor-chowns/)
- [Alexandrine Pirlot de Corbion](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/alexandrine-pirlot-de-corbion/)
- [Mirabel Foster](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/mirabel-foster/)
- [Patricia Woods](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/patricia-woods/)
- [Tim Allen](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/tim-allen/)
- [Franka](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/franka/)
- [Timothy Fisken](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/timothy-fisken/)
- [Edward Avenell](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/edward-avenell/)
- [Mick Moore](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/mick-moore/)
- [Dana Blackburn](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dana-blackburn/)
- [Sarah](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sarah/)
- [Pamel](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/pamel/)
- [Isobel Wilson-Cleary](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/isobel-wilson-cleary/)
- [Andrew Shepherd](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/andrew-shepherd/)
- [Aoife McCullough](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/aoife-mccullough/)
- [Katie McIntosh; Joanna Buckley](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/katie-mcintosh-joanna-buckley/)
- [John Karlsrud](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/john-karlsrud/)
- [Laura Camfield](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/laura-camfield/)
- [David Cobley](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/david-cobley/)
- [Robert Walker](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/robert-walker/)
- [Kunal Sen](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kunal-sen/)
- [Kerry A. Millington](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kerry-a-millington/)
- [Laura Bolton; Kerry A. Millington](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/laura-bolton-kerry-a-millington/)
- [Chandra Lekha Sriram](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/chandra-lekha-sriram/)
- [Asghar Zaidi](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/asghar-zaidi/)
- [Paolo de Renzio and Dominik Zaum](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/paolo-de-renzio-and-dominik-zaum/)
- [Evie Browne; Becky Carter; William Avis; Dana Blackburn;](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/evie-browne-becky-carter-william-avis-dana-blackburn/)
- [Sam Hickey](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sam-hickey/)
- [Simon De Lay](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/simon-de-lay/)
- [Linnea Mills](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/linnea-mills/)
- [Simon De Lay; Linnea Mills; Kamlesh Jadeja; Brian Lucas](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/simon-de-lay-linnea-mills-kamlesh-jadeja-brian-lucas-2/)
- [Samuel Opono](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/samuel-opono/)
- [Keetie Roelen](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/keetie-roelen/)
- [Sara Silvestri](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sara-silvestri/)
- [Ruth Naylor](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ruth-naylor/)
- [Lori Heise & Karima Manji](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lori-heise-karima-manji/)
- [Emma Fulu](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/emma-fulu/)
- [Lori Heise and Emma Fulu](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/lori-heise-and-emma-fulu/)
- [Sarah White and Andrew Shepherd](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sarah-white-and-andrew-shepherd/)
- [Stephen Thompson](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/stephen-thompson/)
- [Pamela Pozarny](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/pamela-pozarny/)
- [Andrew Glazzard and Martine Zeuthen](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/andrew-glazzard-and-martine-zeuthen/)
- [Malcolm Langford](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/malcolm-langford/)
- [Andrea Cornwall](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/andrea-cornwall/)
- [Iffat Idris](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/iffat-idris/)
- [William Avis and Isobel Wilson-Cleary](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/william-avis-and-isobel-wilson-cleary/)
- [Scott Lucas](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/scott-lucas/)
- [Rick James](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/rick-james/)
- [Becky Carter; Brigitte Rohwerder](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/becky-carter-brigitte-rohwerder/)
- [William Avis; Siân Herbert](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/william-avis-sian-herbert/)
- [Katherine Gough](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/katherine-gough/)
- [Tim Kelsall](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/tim-kelsall/)
- [Sultan Barakat](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sultan-barakat/)
- [Wilson Prichard](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/wilson-prichard/)
- [James Deane](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/james-deane/)
- [Sara Silvestri; Andrew Glazzard; Martine Zeuthen](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sara-silvestri-andrew-glazzard-and-martine-zeuthen/)
- [Laura Camfield; Asghar Zaidi](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/laura-camfield-asghar-zaidi/)
- [Becky Carter; Pamela Pozarny](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/becky-carter-pamela-pozarny/)
- [Edward Laws](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/edward-laws/)
- [Patta Scott-Villiers](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/patta-scott-villiers/)
- [Raminder Kaur Kahlon](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/raminder-kaur-kahlon/)
- [Luc Chounet-Cambas](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/luc-chounet-cambas/)
- [Pamela Pozarny; Brigitte Rohwerder](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/pamela-pozarny-brigitte-rohwerder/)
- [Jesse Worker](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jesse-worker/)
- [Paul Jackson](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/paul-jackson/)
- [Robert Muggah](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/robert-muggah/)
- [Huma Haider with Claire Mcloughlin](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/huma-haider-with-claire-mcloughlin/)
- [Claire Mcloughlin with Iffat Idris](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/claire-mcloughlin-with-iffat-idris/)
- [Philip White](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/philip-white/)
- [Markus Schultze-Kraft](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/markus-schultze-kraft/)
- [Shivit Bakrania with Huma Haider](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/shivit-bakrania-with-huma-haider/)
- [Aditi Bhonagiri](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/aditi-bhonagiri/)
- [Liz Carolan](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/liz-carolan/)
- [Zoe Marks](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/zoe-marks/)
- [William Robert Avis](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/william-robert-avis/)
- [Mareike Schomerus & Sherine El Taraboulsi-McCarthy with Jassi Sandhar](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/mareike-schomerus-and-sherine-el-taraboulsi-mccarthy-with-jassi-sandhar/)
- [Jan Telgen](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jan-telgen/)
- [Jonna van der Krift](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jonna-van-der-krift/)
- [Astrid Wake](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/astrid-wake/)
- [Iffat Idris with Ayat Abdelaziz](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/iffat-idris-with-ayat-abdelaziz/)
- [Paul Chignell](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/paul-chignell/)
- [Minakshi Bhardwaj](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/minakshi-bhardwaj/)
- [Kerina Tull](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kerina-tull/)
- [Laura Bolton](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/laura-bolton/)
- [Katy Long](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/katy-long/)
- [Rachel Sabates-Wheeler](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/rachel-sabates-wheeler/)
- [Andy McDevitt](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/andy-mcdevitt/)
- [Roz Price](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/roz-price/)
- [Ed Laws](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/ed-laws/)
- [Dylan O’Driscoll](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dylan-odriscoll/)
- [Pearl Boateng](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/pearl-boateng/)
- [Jacqui Mattingly](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/jacqui-mattingly/)
- [Kamilya Suleymenova](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kamilya-suleymenova/)
- [Irina Syssoyeva-Messon](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/irina-syssoyeva-messon/)
- [Catherine Grant](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/catherine-grant/)
- [Kerna Tull](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kerna-tull/)
- [Helen Mobey](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/helen-mobey/)
- [Giuditta Fontana](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/giuditta-fontana/)
- [Dr Giuditta Fontana](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dr-giuditta-fontana/)
- [Helen West](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/helen-west/)
- [Kiran Manku](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kiran-manku/)
- [Zenobia Ismail](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/zenobia-ismail/)
- [Hannah Timmis](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/hannah-timmis/)
- [Siân Herbert and Sa’eed Husaini](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sian-herbert-and-saeed-husaini/)
- [Thomas Corser](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/thomas-corser/)
- [Joe Bell](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/joe-bell/)
- [Rachel Cooper](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/rachel-cooper/)
- [Kasra Daheshpour](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/kasra-daheshpour/)
- [Fiona Rajé](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/fiona-raje/)
- [Katarzyna Sidlo](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/katarzyna-sidlo/)
- [Magdalena Mikulak](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/magdalena-mikulak/)
- [Athanasios Manis](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/athanasios-manis/)
- [Sue Enfield](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sue-enfield/)
- [Sithandiwe Mujuru](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sithandiwe-mujuru/)
- [Siân Herbert](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sian-herbert-2/) - Siân joined the GSDRC in 2013 and provides research services on a range of conflict, governance, and social development policy issues to the UK government’s Department for International Development, the European Commission’s Instrument Contributing to Stability, and the Australian government’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
- [William Avis](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/william-avis/)
- [Dr John H. Matthews](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dr-john-h-matthews/)
- [Suzanne Bartington and William Avis](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/suzanne-bartington-and-william-avis/)
- [William Avis and Suzanne Bartington](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/william-avis-and-suzanne-bartington/)
- [Dr Hugo Slim](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dr-hugo-slim/)
- [Heather Marquette](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/heather-marquette/)
- [Topua Lesinko](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/topua-lesinko/)
- [Siân Herbert and Izzy Birch](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/sian-herbert-and-izzy-birch/)
- [Dr Iffat Idris](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/dr-iffat-idris/)
- [Rachel M. Gisselquist](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/rachel-m-gisselquist/)
- [Arol Dut](https://gsdrc.org/gsdrc_author/arol-dut/)

## Document Types

- [Working paper](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/working-paper/)
- [Research report](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/research-report/)
- [Policy document](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/policy-document/)
- [Guidance](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/guidance/)
- [Edited Book](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/edited-book/)
- [Journal article](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/journal-article/)
- [Background Paper](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/background-paper/)
- [Briefing paper](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/briefing-paper/)
- [Tanya Lutvey et al. (eds)](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/tanya-lutvey-et-al-eds/)
- [Handbook](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/handbook/)
- [Evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/evaluation/)
- [Issues paper](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/issues-paper/)
- [Literature review](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/literature-review/)
- [Discussion paper](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/discussion-paper/)
- [Systematic review](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/systematic-review/)
- [Book chapter](https://gsdrc.org/document_type/book-chapter/)

## Requesting Agency

- [DFID](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid/)
- [Australian Government](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/australian-government/)
- [Australian Government (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade)](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/australian-government-department-of-foreign-affairs-and-trade/)
- [Not specified](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/not-specified/)
- [European Union](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/european-commission/)
- [DFID Sierra Leone](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-sierra-leone/)
- [DFID Aids and Reproductive Health Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-aids-and-reproductive-health-team/)
- [DFID CHASE: Conflict, Humanitarian and Security Department](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-chase-conflict-humanitarian-and-security-department/)
- [DFID Financial Accountability and Anti-Corruption Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-financial-accountability-and-anti-corruption-team/)
- [DFID MENA Department](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-mena-department/)
- [DFID DR Congo](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-dr-congo/)
- [DFID Evaluation Department](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-evaluation-department/)
- [DFID Pakistan](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-pakistan/)
- [DFID South Africa](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-south-africa/)
- [Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/organisation-for-economic-cooperation-and-development-oecd/)
- [DFID Zimbabwe](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-zimbabwe/)
- [DFID Uganda](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-uganda/)
- [DFID Mozambique](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-mozambique/)
- [DFID Sudan](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-sudan/)
- [DFID Zambia](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-zambia/)
- [DFID Poverty and Vulnerabillity Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-poverty-and-vulnerabillity-team/)
- [DFID Africa Regional Department](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-africa-regional-department/)
- [DFID Civil Society Department](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-civil-society-department/)
- [DFID Policy Division](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-policy-division/)
- [DFID Asia Regional Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-asia-regional-team/)
- [DFID Africa Directorate](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-africa-directorate/)
- [International Justice Mission](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/international-justice-mission/)
- [DFID State & Society Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-state-society-team/)
- [DFID Growth Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-growth-team/)
- [DFID Vietnam](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-vietnam/)
- [DFID Research and Evidence Division](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-research-and-evidence-division/)
- [DFID Ghana](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-ghana/)
- [DFID Conflict Prevention and National Security Group](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-conflict-prevention-and-national-security-group/)
- [DFID Politics and State Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-politics-and-state-team/)
- [OECD PDG](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/oecd-pdg/)
- [UNDP Oslo Governance Centre](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/undp-oslo-governance-centre/)
- [DFID Nigeria](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-nigeria/)
- [DFID Afghanistan](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-afghanistan/)
- [DFID Rwanda](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-rwanda/)
- [DFID Stabilisation Unit](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-stabilisation-unit/)
- [DFID Equity and Rights Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-equity-and-rights-team/)
- [DFID Poverty Response Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-poverty-response-team/)
- [DFID Nepal](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-nepal/)
- [DFID United Nations and Commonwealth Department](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-united-nations-and-commonwealth-department/)
- [DFID Policy and Research Division](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-policy-and-research-division/)
- [DFID Iraq and MENA Regional Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-iraq-and-mena-regional-team/)
- [DFID Bangladesh](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-bangladesh/)
- [DFID Caribbean](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-caribbean/)
- [DFID India](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-india/)
- [DFID China](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-china/)
- [DFID South Asia Division](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-south-asia-division/)
- [DFID Ethiopia](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-ethiopia/)
- [DFID Indonesia](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-indonesia/)
- [DFID Iraq](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-iraq/)
- [DFID Central Research Department](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-central-research-department/)
- [Practical Action](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/practical-action/)
- [DFID Cambodia](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-cambodia/)
- [GIZ](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/giz/)
- [FCO Foreign and Commonweath Office](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/fco-foreign-and-commonweath-office/)
- [DFID Fragile States Team](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-fragile-states-team/)
- [DFID East Africa Research Hub](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/dfid-east-africa-research-hub/)
- [International Development Research Centre (IDRC)](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/international-development-research-centre-idrc/)
- [INCLUDE](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/include/)
- [FCDO](https://gsdrc.org/req_agency/fcdo/)

## E-Learning categories

- [Reading pack](https://gsdrc.org/prof_dev_cat/reading-pack/)
- [Webinar](https://gsdrc.org/prof_dev_cat/webinar/)
- [Covid-19 Conflict and Governance Evidence Summary](https://gsdrc.org/prof_dev_cat/covid-19-evidence-summary/)

## Topic Guide Section Label

- [Challenges](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/challenges/)
- [Concepts](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/concepts/)
- [Evidence](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/evidence/)
- [Lessons](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/lessons/)
- [Summary](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/summary/)
- [Tools](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/tools/)
- [Interventions](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/interventions/)
- [Impact](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/impact/)
- [Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/approaches/)
- [Themes](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/themes/)
- [Outcomes](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/outcomes/)
- [Debates](https://gsdrc.org/topic_guide_section_labels/debates/)

## Placement

- [Home](https://gsdrc.org/placement/home/)
- [Governance](https://gsdrc.org/placement/governance/)
- [Social Development](https://gsdrc.org/placement/social-development/)
- [Humanitarian Issues](https://gsdrc.org/placement/humanitarian-issues/)
- [Conflict](https://gsdrc.org/placement/conflict/)
- [Development Pressures](https://gsdrc.org/placement/development-pressures/)
- [Approaches](https://gsdrc.org/placement/approaches/)
- [Monitoring and Evaluation](https://gsdrc.org/placement/monitoring-and-evaluation/)
- [Security & Justice](https://gsdrc.org/placement/security-justice/)
- [Social Protection](https://gsdrc.org/placement/social-protection/)
- [Democracy & elections](https://gsdrc.org/placement/democracy-elections/)
- [Conflict analysis](https://gsdrc.org/placement/conflict-analysis/)