Page contents
- The role of communication in state-building
- The role of media in fragile and conflict-affected states
- Media development in fragile and conflict-affected states
- Case studies: communication in fragile and conflict-affected states
- Further resources
The role of communication in state-building
How can communication structures and processes support state-building in fragile and conflict-affected states? Can they help to rebuild state-society relations and contribute to state legitimacy? Much of the recent state-building literature stresses that the international community should pay more attention to the development of positive state-society relations in state-building processes. At the same time, communication specialists and political scientists are beginning to argue that restoring the public sphere, which is often non-existent or exclusionary in fragile and conflict situations, can make a critical contribution in this regard.
Fragile and conflict-affected states are often characterised by a legacy of little or no interaction between government and society, a lack of trust in government, lack of citizen demand for accountability, and unrealistic expectations on the part of the population of what the government can achieve. In such contexts, communication can potentially play a crucial role in managing expectations, building trust in and oversight of state institutions, aiding the formation of an inclusive national identity and fostering an engaged and participatory citizenry.
Creating spaces for dialogue, deliberation and wider participation in the public sphere can also contribute to peacebuilding in conflict-affected states. In such environments, dialogue within society requires ‘a space in which people would feel safe expressing themselves [and] where they could listen to each other notwithstanding the pain this might rekindle’ (Interpeace, cited in Pruitt and Thomas, 2007). Fostering an environment of trust through dialogue has the potential to build societal capacity for deliberation. It is important that participatory processes, that bring people together, also have the capacity to produce results or participants can become disillusioned with the process.
von Kaltenborn-Stachau, H., 2008, ‘The Missing Link: Fostering Positive Citizen-State Relations in Post-Conflict Environments’, Communication for Governance and Accountability Program, World Bank, Washington DC
How can the international community help to rebuild state-society relations in post-conflict situations? This study argues that current donor approaches to statebuilding are too narrowly focused and too fragmented to fully address the ‘invisible’ yet critical processes of state-society relations. It recommends the adoption of a governance framework based on the concept of the public sphere in order to foster positive collaboration and engagement within post-conflict societies.
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See also: the related Policy Brief.
Fortune, F., and Bloh, O., 2008, ‘Strategic Communication: The Heart of Post-Conflict Processes’, Conflict Trends, 2008/2, African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes, South Africa
Why have governments and their international partners not placed strategic communication at the centre of post-conflict reconstruction and reform? This article outlines how strategic communication can help shift attitudes and behaviours of policymakers and citizens towards development and governance. Often, lack of political will and fear of accountability hinder the use of strategic communication in post-conflict situations. However, such contexts provide unique opportunities for integrating strategic communication into reform processes.
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Pruitt, B. and Thomas, P., 2007, ‘Democratic Dialogue: A Handbook for Practitioners’, General Secretariat of the Organization of American States, Washington DC; International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Stockholm; United Nations Development Programme, New York
What is dialogue and how can it respond to the need for wider participation in the public sphere? The first section of this handbook outlines the need for dialogue and how it can make a difference in pursuit of peace, development and democratic governance. Dialogue is the process of people coming together to build mutual understanding and trust across their differences and create positive outcomes through conversation. The number of dialogue processes taking place around the world has increased, as has the need for a greater understanding of effective dialogue. South Africa, Poland, the Czech Republic and Chile provide examples of transitions from authoritarian to democratic regimes. Bosnia, Guatemala and Northern Ireland have laid the foundations for peaceful futures after violent conflict. These experiences provide hope that difficult issues can be dealt with without resorting to force.
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For further information, see strengthening citizen engagement in the state-building section of the GSDRC’s Fragile States topic guide.
The role of media in fragile and conflict-affected states
The role of the media in fragile and conflict-affected states is often seen as highly controversial and, some argue, poorly understood by policymakers. Whilst communication advocates tend to argue that the media can invigorate democracy in fragile and conflict-affected states, specifically by increasing government accountability, exposing corruption and facilitating informed public debate, many others caution that there is equal evidence of how the media can reinforce already deep societal divides.
Many questions remain regarding the relationship between media development and state-building. It is unclear, for example, under what circumstances media disrupts or reinforces neopatrimonial political systems, or whether and how media development should be sequenced with democratic reform. The media’s political role in fragile and conflict-affected states is often most acute around elections, and these effects can include violence and the derailing of democratic processes (as in the case of Kenya, 2008). What is clear is there is a need for a much better understanding, and more empirical research, on the conditions under which the media either contribute to or, alternatively, undermine state stability.
IDS and BBC World Service Trust, 2009, ‘The Role of Media in Fragile Situations: A Research Dialogue Across Disciplines’, Report from a research symposium held at Stanmer House, Brighton, UK, 16 January 2009
What is the relationship between the media and democracy in fragile states? How do the media shape state-citizen relationships in fragile states? This report presents the findings of a symposium that considered the role of the media in fragile and conflict affected states and identified research gaps. It concluded that media and communication research could provide important policy insights into state fragility, state effectiveness and state-citizen relationships.
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Further information from the 2009 conference on effective states and the media, jointly organised by IDS and the BBC World Service Trust, is also available.
Kalathil, S. Langlois, J., and Kaplan, A., 2008, ‘Towards a New Model: Media and Communication in Post-Conflict and Fragile States’, Communication for Governance and Accountability Program, World Bank, Washington DC
How can donors improve their support to communication in conflict-affected and fragile environments? This report draws lessons from the experience of donors, in particular USAID’s Office of Transition Initiatives, in supporting media and communication in conflict-affected environments. It calls for donors to make media and communication a technical priority in post-conflict and fragile states, and to view media and communication as a public good in itself, rather than as an instrument towards another end.
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See also: the related policy brief.
Mezzera, M. and Sial, S., 2010, Media and Governance in Pakistan: A Controversial Yet Essential Relationship’, Initiative for Peacebuilding
What is the position of the media within Pakistan’s governance system? What is the media’s potential as an agent of reform? This study examines the main news media outlets, finding them to be characterised by over-accelerated growth and corrupt and sensationalist journalism. While there has been a (temporary?) halt to restrictive government measures against the press, patronage is an ongoing challenge. Improved education is key to the development of a professional Pakistani media and of well-informed public opinion. More attention also needs to be paid to the wide-reaching but particularly sensationalist Urdu-language media.
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Stremlau, N., and Price, M., 2009, ‘Media, Elections and Political Violence in Eastern Africa: Towards a Comparative Framework’, An Annenberg-Oxford Occasional Paper in Communications Policy Research, University of Oxford / University of Pennsylvania
What is the role of the media in exacerbating or resolving post-election disputes? This report presents the findings of a workshop which explored why election violence occurred after some elections and not others, drawing on experiences in Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Somaliland, Tanzania and Sudan. The report suggests three ways of analysing the role the media can play in post-election violence: 1) as an amplifier, facilitating and accelerating the spread of messages that encourage violence or appeal for peaceful resolutions; 2) as a mirror, offering either an accurate or somewhat distorted reflection of the state and nation-building process; and 3) as an enabler, contributing to the process of nation-building.
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Abdi, J. and Deane, J., 2008, ‘The Kenyan 2007 Elections and their Aftermath: The Role of Media and Communication’, Policy Briefing No. 1, BBC World Service Trust, London
What role has the media played in Kenyan democracy? To what extent is the media responsible for inflaming the post-election violence of 2008? This briefing draws on semi-structured interviews and a review of research and monitoring material. It finds that the media has both undermined and invigorated democracy; an understanding of democracy in Kenya – and elsewhere – requires a strong understanding of the media’s central role in shaping it. Development actors need to provide demand-led, coherent support for public interest media.
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Further information is available in the section on social media in fragile and conflict-affected states in this guide.
Discussion on the role of the media in conflict prevention, conflict management and peacebuilding is available in the GSDRC’s Conflict topic guide.
Media development in fragile and conflict-affected states
Much of the literature acknowledges that in principle the development of independent, pluralistic, and sustainable media is critical to fostering long-term peace and stability in fragile and conflict-affected states. There is some consensus that the role of the media needs to be understood in developing state-building strategies. Nevertheless, many commentators caution that ill-planned or ill-timed media development strategies can potentially undermine state-building, accentuate state instability and fuel division in society.
In the context of weak and fragile states, where political processes are often unstable and government can lack legitimacy, it cannot be assumed the creation of free and independent media will automatically strengthen civil society, or help establish a democratic system that will hold governments accountable. Media development in fragile states should not overlook the complex realities of existing power and patrimonial relationships in society, and should account for state-building trajectories.
Putzel, J. and van der Zwan, J., 2007, ‘Why Templates for Media Development Do Not Work in Crisis States’, Crisis States Research Centre, London
How should media policies be adapted in countries affected by crises and war? Do privately owned media contribute to democratic development in fragile states? This report is based on the outcome of discussions at a workshop organised by the Crisis States Research Centre, the Stanhope Centre for Communication and the Annenberg School for Communication. It argues that neo-liberal templates for media development do not work in fragile states and that unsophisticated liberalisation of the media can potentially undermine the state building project.
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Bajraktari, Y. and Hsu, E., 2007, ‘Developing Media in Stabilisation and Reconstruction Operations’, United States Institute of Peace, Washington DC
What strategies, tool and methods work best in the development of post-war media institutions? In war-torn societies, the development of an independent, pluralistic, and sustainable media is critical to fostering long-term peace and stability. This report provides guidance by drawing on best practices from past and present post-war media development efforts. A permanent, indigenous mechanism dedicated to monitoring media development is critical to fostering a healthy, independent media sector. It is particularly important to monitor hate speech.
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Bratic, V., and Schirch, L., 2008, ‘Why and When to Use the Media for Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding’, GPPAC Issue Paper, Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict
How can civil society organisations working in conflict prevention and peacebuilding improve their interactions with the media? Why and when should they use the media? This paper argues that different types of media can bring about different types of change. Information programming can encourage cognitive change by increasing knowledge and framing public discussion. Entertainment programming and advertising encourage attitudinal change. The media rarely directly affects behaviour, but it influences attitudes and opinions that shape behaviour. Behavioural change happens through the cumulative impact of the media and other social institutions; an integrated strategy is important.
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Case studies: communication in fragile and conflict affected states
Bajraktari, Y. and Parajon, C., 2008, ‘Media and Conflict: Afghanistan as a Relative Success Story’, Special Report, United States Institute of Peace, Washington DC
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UNDP, 2004, ‘Supporting Public Service Broadcasting: Learning from Bosnia and Herzegovina’s Experience’, Democratic Governance Group, UNDP, New York
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Raman, V. and Bhanot, A. 2008, ‘Political Crisis, Mediated Deliberation and Citizen Engagement: A Case Study of Bangladesh and Nirbachoni Sanglap’, IAMCR, Mexico
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