How central has the issue of citizenship and rights been to internal conflicts in Africa? This article moves away from political and economic explanations of conflict and argues that underlying most of the civil wars in Africa are issues of citizenship and rights. Often the state institutionalises ethnic differences and privileges through a divided and exclusionary definition of citizenship. Negotiating peace and stability will require reframing citizenship from a group to a national or ‘universal’ perspective.
The construction and nature of the state in Africa tend towards the institutionalisation of ethnic entitlements, rights, and privileges, which creates differentiated and unequal citizenship. This tendency de-individualises citizenship and makes it more of a group phenomenon. Rather than the state providing a common bond for the people through the tie of citizenship, with equal rights, privileges, and obligations both in precepts and practice, people’s loyalties are split. The result is usually tension and contradictions in the public sphere, with claims of marginalisation, exclusion, and domination among individuals and groups.
In Rwanda, for example, the colonial construction of group identity influenced the structures and processes of the state system. This thwarted the logic of a common national identity and equal citizenship:
- Colonialism radically transformed the social structures and identity formation of a fairly homogenous society. It created rigid identity differentiation and sharp social distinction among the three ethnic groups, with the Tutsi given privileged status.
- After decolonisation, the new Hutu elite sought to make up for the historical gap of an inadequate social identity. During this period, being Hutu gave access to state employment, military service, right of association, participation in state affairs, and security.
- The Hutu elite turned colonial cultural mythology on its head, portraying Tutsis as ‘foreigners’ and not genuine citizens. This intellectual platform was used to justify institutional discrimination.
- The Tutsi were compelled to counter-mobilise for political action. The result was the birth of the Rwandan Peoples Front (RPF) in 1990, and in 1994 a civil war in which 800,000 Tutsis were killed.
Engendering peace, security, and stability in Africa are tasks which must be accomplished by Africans. In order for the state to affect the life chances of its citizens in a just and equitable manner, policy changes are needed:
- First, liberal democracy needs to be taken seriously. It is a means through which some of the values embodied in citizenship can be realised. Liberal democratic norms could provide the base for the expression of citizenship in its substantive form.
- Second, the normative dimension of citizenship needs to be addressed, which the liberal democratic project cannot guarantee. Who qualifies to be a citizen, and who does not?
