How can the process of state reconstruction be understood? This working paper from the Crisis States Research Centre examines state reconstruction in Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo in light of Tanzania’s experience of establishing a stable state. Overall, it argues that a ‘state in the making’ lies somewhere between ‘traditional’ forms of organisation and the modern state and formal economy. Its conclusions cast doubt on the idea that state-making is best pursued through modern liberal democracy.
During state formation, people and groups operate within four sets of rule systems: rules adopted by the state (statutory law); rules evolved over time (customary traditions); rules devised by communities for survival; and rule systems created by non-state centres of power (warlords, criminal gangs). These distinct normative frameworks and incentive structures (understood as ‘institutional multiplicity’) can be used to gain power or advantage.
Research comparing state reconstruction in Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania suggests that state reconstruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo has been hindered by several institutional factors:
- There was no clear victor to conflict in Congo. While the current interim government represents all major parties, these parties maintain separate armies. The lack of a unified security forces in Congo is a major impediment to stability.
- Most economic activity in Congo takes place outside state control, in the ‘informal economy’. This undermines the very existence of the state and impedes the re-establishment of basic state functions.
- Congo has failed to build cross-ethnic political organisations or secure property rights for a cross section of the population. Tanzania, in contrast, took an inclusive approach to ethnic groups and formed deliberate policies to promote integration across ethnic groups.
- International actors played an important part in state reconstruction in Tanzania and Uganda. In Congo, however, they seem to have put more resources into the electoral process than into direct peacekeeping.
It is possible to make the following five key propositions in relation to the challenges of state reconstruction:
- The inclusiveness of the coalition in power is crucial to reconstruction. State building without some agreement on the rules of the game is doomed to failure.
- Maintaining peace requires the consolidation of state security systems. State forces should receive adequate salaries, operate legally and exercise a chain of command. The presence and power of rival armed groups should be assessed.
- The condition of the economy and prospects for raising revenue are fundamental. After state collapse, large sections of the population seek survival and profit-making strategies in the informal economy, undermining the state’s formal economy.
- The organisation of the political system plays a decisive role. Limited competitive politics are better for state reconstruction than formal democracy.
- Development assistance can sustain a state through economic crisis, but may make future crisis more likely by removing pressure to develop internal revenue. Pressure from the international community on reintroducing political competition can threaten fragile stability.
