This report delivers an array of data, studies and evidence collected from a variety of sources to shine a spotlight on the pervasive deprivations and constraints that face women and girls worldwide. It focuses on key drivers and determinants of voice and agency. It also investigates the effectiveness of interventions designed to combat violence against women and other agency deprivations.
The report identifies some promising programmes and interventions to address these deprivations and constraints. Policymakers and stakeholders are called on to tackle this agenda, drawing on evidence about what works and systematically tracking progress on the ground. This must start with reforming discriminatory laws and follow-through with concerted policies and public actions, including multi-sectoral approaches that engage with men and boys and challenge adverse social norms.
Key Findings:
- Social norms can limit women’s mobility and ability to network, restrict women’s representation in politics and government, and be enshrined in discriminatory laws and practices. Unequal power relationships within households and in society as a whole have broad-based effects. Gender-based violence is associated with social norms and expectations that reinforce inequality and place the choices of women and girls outside their realm of control.
- Legal discrimination is pervasive. In 2013, 128 countries had at least one legal difference between men and women, ranging from barriers to women obtaining official identification cards to restrictions on owning or using property, establishing their creditworthiness, and getting a job.
- New analysis of Demographic and Health Survey data from 54 countries reveals that women often experience deprivations and constraints across multiple domains of agency at the same time. Most women (4 in 5) lack control over household resources, believe gender-based violence is justified under certain circumstances, or were married before they turned 18. Just as striking, almost half of all women report being deprived in more than one of these areas, and almost 1 in 8 experiences all three.
- Agency deprivations and constraints are linked to other disadvantages—particularly access to education. About 90 percent of women with a primary education or less experience at least one of the deprivations mentioned above, and almost two-thirds experience all three. This finding contrasts with about 1 in 5 and 1 in 20, respectively, of women with a secondary education or higher. Almost 1 in 5 rural women with a primary education experience all three deprivations compared with 1 in 100 urban women with a higher education.
Recommendations:
- Addressing social norms is critical because adverse norms underpin and reinforce the multiple deprivations that many women and girls experience. Evidence suggests a need for public actions that both enhance women’s and girls’ aspirations and change behaviours of all so that social norms become gender-equal.
- Progressive constitutions and legal reforms can support the transformation of social norms surrounding agency. Ensure that all sources of law adhere to principles of gender equality. Support effective implementation and enforcement of laws. Expand access to justice for all women, including through customary processes.
- Expanding women’s economic opportunities can have wide-ranging benefits, including benefits for women’s agency, but not all work is equally empowering. Working conditions and the type of work matter. Among the promising new approaches are programs that tackle norms and provide young women and girls with new information and opportunities.
- Social protection can be transformative. Programs that go beyond protection per se and include elements to tackle regressive gender norms have had promising results. Such elements have included addressing child care responsibilities; increasing access to finance and assets; increasing skills, self-confidence, and aspirations; incentivizing girls’ schooling; and providing information and building awareness about gender issues and rights.
- Education is of major significance and needs to be a top priority around the world. Better educated women are often more able to make and implement decisions and choices, even where gender norms are restrictive. This enhanced personal agency also improves their children’s opportunities. Educated mothers have greater autonomy in making decisions and more power to act for their children’s benefit.