How can women’s interests and gender equality be advanced through political institutions? How do political institutions affect the nature of women’s leadership, influence on decision-making, and the chances that they will promote a gender-equality agenda? This book chapter reveals that the political effectiveness of women depends upon the nature of women’s engagement in a range of institutions in civil society, political society (parties and trade unions), and the state itself. It is key that women move beyond simple access to these institutions, and seek instead to transform accountability systems within them so that power-holders (including women political representatives) answer to women, and answer for gender equality.
The term, ‘women’s political effectiveness’ relates to the ability to articulate and politicize women’s issues, make demands on decision-making authorities through elected representatives, trigger public sector responses to women’s needs and enforce the equal rights of women. This concept highlights the relationship between voice, representation and accountability in achieving greater political participation for women.
The nature and design of ‘accountability institutions’ determine the level of women’s participation in political life, and the influence of gender equality advocates on decision-making. Institutional arrangements can influence the political participation of women in the following ways:
- The design and nature of the political system, civil society and the state may affect the degree of access to public space for women, levels of participation and control, and policy and legal outcomes.
- State officials may fail to establish adequate mechanisms to detect and punish gender biases in the public sector. This includes bias within existing and proposed legislation that reinforces the subordination of women.
- Public authorities may omit to consult women in the formulation of policy, or may fail to deliver on commitments through failure to allocate adequate budgetary resources.
- High-level corruption affecting access to resources and service delivery reduces ex ante the resources available for marginalized groups, including women. Certain forms of corruption that affect women in particular — such as low-level ‘retail’ corruption or sexual extortion in exchange for access to services — may not be detected or punished in accountability systems.
- Gender-based divisions of labour and power limit women’s engagement in civil society. Responsibility for household duties may restrict the time and energy available to women to take part in associational life.
- The nature of gender relations impacts on women’s ability to engage in civil and political life. Women may be limited by resource constraints. The sexual subordination of women undermines their ‘voice’ in politics.
Women’s political effectiveness depends on how their interests are institutionalised in three arenas: civil society, the political system and the state. Ultimately, the success of gender-equity efforts relies on the interaction between three factors: the strength of the gender-equity lobby; the credibility of female politicians; and the enforcement of national commitments to gender-equity. These factors can be addressed in developing countries if donors and policy-makers take steps to:
- Support civil society as a key forum for shaping gender-equity policy goals and building a local support base for women’s issues.
- Develop the capacity of civil society by promoting a favourable political and cultural environment for associational activity, supporting women taking prominent positions in civil society organizations, and diversity among civil society groups.
- Promote the participation of women in the political process and advancing gender-based interests through democratic channels.
- Institutionalise women’s participation in politics. This involves considering whether the electoral system and political culture are ‘women-friendly’ and using quotas to boost the number of female representatives.
- Assist public authorities in creating a gender-sensitive culture by encouraging women’s participation in the formulation of policy at national, municipal and local levels.
- Establish accountability mechanisms to address gender-based grievances, ensure compliance with gender-equity commitments and guarantee respect for constitutional and legislative provisions relating to gender equality.
- Remedy existing gender biases and inherent discrimination within state institutions such as the legislature, the police and the judiciary.
