Climate change will affect key sectors and areas of social development and livelihoods programming in multiple ways. However, there are gaps and uncertainties about the effects of climate projections. This section identifies available evidence on how climate change will affect social development goals in relation to specific development sectors and contexts. In turn, this section examines how social development interventions can reduce vulnerability and increase adaptive capacity to climate change.
Sector impacts and interventions
Agriculture and food security
How will climate change affect agriculture and food security?
Climate change is already negatively affecting agriculture and food production ‒ particularly on the livelihoods and welfare of rural communities and those dependent on subsistence agriculture (Foresight 2011; FAO, 2013; 2016). Future impacts of climate change on agriculture and food production are likely to be severe. Resources necessary for food production will be placed under greater pressure, and changes in rainfall patterns and rising temperatures will affect crop yields (Foresight, 2011). Fisheries, aquaculture, livestock production, forestry and all agro-ecosystems will be affected by environmental changes, as will related physical structures (Foresight, 2011; FAO, 2016).
The most recent IPCC report (IPCC, 2014) cautions that rural livelihoods will be at risk from reduced agricultural production. Experts indicate that climate change will have a severe impact on food security and nutrition, as well livelihoods (HLPE, 2010; FAO, 2016). Environmental changes are likely to reduce production, increasing vulnerability and resulting in lower incomes, weakening livelihoods and resilience, and lowering consumption (FAO, 2016). Quantitative models already predict an increase in world food prices, particularly for important agricultural crops such as rice, wheat, maize and soybean (Foresight 2011; FAO, 2016). Climate change impacts will be particularly harmful for farmers and pastoralists in semi-arid regions (IPCC, 2014).
Pastoralist systems depend on a balance between people, livestock and pastures. When this is disrupted, the impacts can be devastating for individuals’ and communities’ livelihoods and well-being (Anderson et al., 2010). Observed environmental changes in drylands include lower rainfall, more intense and longer droughts, and higher temperatures. These will have a variety of direct and indirect effects on pastoralist livelihoods, including greater risk of food security, more outbreaks of animal disease, and more soil erosion (Anderson et al., 2010). Despite these challenges, where mobility of people and herds is unconstrained, pastoralism is an effective adaptation strategy (Humanitarian Policy Group, 2009).
Foresight. (2011). The future of food and farming: Challenges and choices for global sustainability. London: Government Office for Science.
This report provides an overview of the anticipated impacts and pressures on the global food systems from 2011 to 2050, drawing on mixed-method empirical research. Pressures identified include an increase in global population (to an anticipated nine billion) and greater competition for land, water and energy. The report identifies five classes of action to address the challenge of balancing supply and demand: acting sustainably; addressing the threat of future volatility in the food system; ending hunger; reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the global food system; and maintaining biodiversity and ecosystems while feeding the world.
HLPE. (2012). Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome: Committee on World Food Security.
Based on a review of existing evidence, this expert panel examines the impact of climate change on food security. The report states that climate change will have detrimental impacts on food security and agricultural systems by: reducing the productivity of existing food systems; harming the livelihoods of those already vulnerable to food insecurity; and increasing the challenges of providing clean water. The report calls for urgent action to address the impacts of climate change at all levels and recommends: integrating food security and climate change concerns; increasing the resilience of food systems to climate change; developing low-emission agricultural strategies; collecting and disseminating local information and knowledge; and facilitating the participation of stakeholders in decision making and implementation.
Pastoralists
Anderson, S., Morton, J., & Toulmin, C. (2010). Climate change for agrarian societies in drylands: Implications and future pathways. In R. Mearns & A. Norton (Eds.), Social dimensions of climate change: Equity and vulnerability in a warming world (pp. 199-256). Washington, DC: World Bank.
This chapter outlines the main impacts of climate change on the livelihoods of pastoralists and those living on drylands. Both the physical geography of drylands and political and economic factors can constrain the livelihoods of pastoralist communities. Policies to address climate change impacts should ensure a strong presence of, and voice for, those affected; advance regional cooperation; and focus on improved water management at local, national and regional levels.
Humanitarian Policy Group. (2009). Pastoralism and climate change: Enabling adaptive capacity (HPG Commissioned Reports). London: ODI.
The effects of climate change on the drylands of the Horn of Africa pose difficult policy challenges. This synthesis paper argues that pastoralism is a logical adaptation route in areas of increased climatic variability, and has an important role to play where other livelihoods are likely to fail. However, pastoralists’ resilience to drought and adaptive capacity must be built upon and supported. Evidence suggests policies should support pastoralists to improve drought preparedness, planning, disaster management structures and risk reduction efforts, rather than directly providing adaptation strategies.
Gender, agriculture and climate change
Understanding the gender division of labour in a given context – notably in agricultural activities, care responsibilities, food security and nutrition – is vital to addressing climate change. Analysing gender-specific perceptions and responses to climate risks is also key. Climate change will have gender-differentiated impacts that will require gender-differentiated adaption responses. This is because men’s and women’s roles and experiences vary, as do their abilities to access benefits, their ways of using the natural resource base, and their mitigation strategies. The design of interventions will be heavily influenced by social and cultural norms and by decision-making and bargaining within households (FAO, 2016; Lambrou & Nelson, 2010).
Women play a vital role in agriculture ‒ as producers, processors, traders and agents of food and nutritional security (World Bank, FAO, & IFAD, 2009; 2015). The experience of women and girls in managing natural resources makes them well placed to take a lead in adaptation programmes in the agricultural sector (Skinner, 2011). Policies and legislation are also important to consider when designing interventions. For example, unequal property rights are particularly significant for agricultural interventions, as men and women have different incentives for investments and different levels of access to financial resources (World Bank, FAO, & IFAD, 2009). Gender equality measures need to be taken into account in the food system to promote women’s agency and participation in decision making. Such participation is particularly relevant for climate change adaptation to ensure women share in benefits (Foresight, 2011; FAO, 2016).
Lambrou, Y., & Nelson, S. (2010). Farmers in a changing climate: Does gender matter? Food security in Andhra Pradesh, India. Rome: FAO.
What are the gender dimensions of climate change and agriculture? This report draws on a survey in two drought-prone districts in India. It identifies a strong gender dimension to how climate change is experienced and the response mechanisms men and women adopt. For example, limited water availability increases household work for women, while more women than men indicated they would go without food in times of low rainfall. Gender analysis is recommended to identify differential impacts and mitigation approaches adopted.
World Bank, FAO, &IFAD (2009). Gender in Agriculture sourcebook. Washington, DC: World Bank.
This sourcebook provides a guide for practitioners and technical staff in addressing gender issues, and integrating gender-responsive actions in the design and implementation of agricultural projects and programmes. The sourcebook covers 16 thematic areas, including agriculture, livestock, forestry, and fisheries, and draws from a range of case study examples. The most recent addition to the Sourcebook is Module 18, which focuses on Gender and Climate-Smart Agriculture. The module provides guidance and tools for integrating gender in planning, design, implementation and evaluation of programmes and investments related to climate-smart agriculture.
Agricultural adaptation and mitigation
Agriculture makes a notable contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and so is a prime sector for adaptation and mitigation (IPCC, 2014). Options include both supply- and demand-side measures, including: more efficient management practices of resources such as land and livestock; reduced food losses and waste; and changes in diet and wood consumption (IPCC, 2014; FAO, 2013). Adaptive measures in agriculture can enable higher household incomes, offer greater protection to the asset base, and, importantly, help communities become less vulnerable to extreme weather events (IFAD, 2013). Climate adaptation also presents opportunities for smallholders to diversify production and spread climate risk across different income streams, as well as to build resilience by reducing their dependency on climate-sensitive livelihoods (IFAD, 2014a; 2013; Davies et al., 2009).
Available examples demonstrate success in adopting climate-smart agricultural practices across agricultural sub-sectors and global contexts (FAO, 2014; 2013). Programme mechanisms that have effectively promoted climate-smart interventions through provision of funding opportunities for a range of smallholder adaptation activities include for example, the Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP). This programme supports activities ranging from increasing the resilience of rural infrastructure to improving capacity to manage risks from water-related disasters. Some case studies show how ASAP-supported interventions have strengthened women’s empowerment and promoted gender equality – for instance, by increasing women’s asset base (IFAD, 2014b).
IFAD. (2013). The adaptation advantage: The economic benefits of preparing small-scale farmers for climate change. Rome: IFAD.
What are the economic benefits of smallholder adaptation? This report includes case studies from Kenya, Turkey, Viet Nam, Bangladesh and Bolivia, and quantifies benefits using economic evaluations of adaptation measures, such as cost-benefit comparisons. The cases document a range of rural adaptation activities, such as flood protection and economic inclusion, and skill development to improve smallholders’ resilience.
IFAD. (2014a). Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme. Rome: IFAD.
This report outlines of the Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP), which is a multi-year, multi-donor financing source for smallholders’ adaptation. ASAP aims to: improve land management and promote gender-sensitive and climate-resilient agricultural practices; increase the availability and use of work for agricultural production; increase capacity to manage short- and long-term risks from water-related disasters; increase climate resilience of rural infrastructure; and document and disseminate knowledge on climate-smart practices in smallholder agriculture.
IFAD. (2014b). ASAP-supported actions to strengthen women’s empowerment and gender equality. Rome: IFAD.
This brief note identifies ASAP-supported actions that aim to strengthen women’s empowerment and gender equality. Examples are provided from Bolivia, Viet Nam, Mali, Kyrgyzstan, and Nigeria, and range from interventions that increase women’s asset base, to supporting women to have an equal voice in adaptation decision-making processes.
FAO. (2014). Climate-smart agriculture on the ground. Rome: FAO.
This booklet provides successful examples of climate-smart systems supported by FAO in various countries. Cases show the diversity of potential options across different regions and agricultural systems, including forestry, livestock grazing, smallholder farming, ecosystem approaches in the fisheries sector. They also cover subjects such as biodiversity and gender.
IPCC. (2014). Agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU). In O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
How can agriculture, forestry and other land use sectors (AFOLU) mitigate against climate change? Mitigation is derived from both the removal of greenhouse gases, and reducing emissions through the management of land and livestock. The AFOLU sector is responsible for almost a quarter of GHG emissions. Opportunities for mitigation include land and livestock management, reducing losses and waste of food, and changes in diet and wood consumption. Challenges in implementing mitigation options include financing, poverty, technological development, and diffusion and transfer barriers.
Health
How will climate change affect health?
Environmental changes are already affecting human health, and are likely to lead to greater frequency and coverage of infectious diseases such as malaria, particularly in developing countries. A rise in air pollutants and allergens may lead to more cases of respiratory disease (Confalonieri et al., 2007). Greater frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as floods and heat waves, will increase mortality and injury rates, particularly among women, older people and children (WHO, 2012; 2014). Malnutrition rates are also likely to increase, particularly because agriculture is already being affected by environmental changes (FAO, 2016).
Social consequences of climate change will also have a direct impact on health. Experts caution that population displacement following natural disasters, for example, may lead to psychological stress and place women at higher risk of sexual and domestic violence (WHO, 2012; 2014).
Groups that are particularly vulnerable to health-related impacts of climate change include women, older people, children, traditional societies, subsistence farmers, and coastal populations (Confalonieri et al., 2007). Gender is a particularly important determinant of how climate change impacts health (WHO, 2012; 2014).
Confalonieri, U., Menne, B., Akhtar, R., Ebi, K. L., Hauengue, M., Kovats, R. S., & Woodward, A. (2007). Human health. In M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden, & C.E. Hanson (Eds.), Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 391-431). Cambridge University Press.
The paper finds that there is ‘very high confidence’ that climate change currently contributes to the global burden of disease and premature death, and that health risks will be greatest in low income countries and among the poor, older people, children, traditional societies, subsistence farmers and coastal populations. Identified health impacts range from changes in the distribution of some infectious disease vectors, to an increase in deaths and injuries related to extreme weather events. The paper argues that adaptive capacity needs to be improved globally, and that economic development is an important component of this adaptation.
WHO. (2014). Gender, climate change and health. Geneva: WHO.
Based on mixed-method evidence, this paper identifies gender differences in the health risks and impacts of climate change. It finds a range of gender-relevant impacts, including: women are more likely to die during natural disasters than men; gender rules, norms and relations may prevent women from accessing health care; and pregnant women are more vulnerable to certain diseases, such as malaria. Recommendations include: gender-sensitive research to identify factors that contribute to vulnerability; gender-responsive and accessible health services that reach the poorest populations; and adaptation strategies that consider women’s and men’s capacities, power, resilience, vulnerabilities and resources.
Adaptation and mitigation in health
Adaptation and mitigation efforts in the health sector have been hampered by capacity constraints, including weak research capacity to inform adaptation and poor primary health information systems (Costello et al., 2009). Experts contend, however, that mitigation and adaptation actions provide added benefits in relation to health. Recommendations include gender-sensitive health and awareness campaigns; health surveillance and monitoring systems; gender-responsive accessible health services; and tailoring health adaptation approaches to existing capacities.
Costello, A., Abbas, M., Allen, A., Ball, S., Bell, S., Bellamy, R., & Patterson, C. (2009). Managing the health effects of climate change. The Lancet, 373, 1693-733.
Based on qualitative empirical evidence, this article argues that climate change will place millions of people at risk and increase health inequity by negatively impacting key determinants of health. Challenges include: weak research capacity to inform adaptation; the need to improve primary health information systems; and the need to share local knowledge on a wider scale. A public health and advocacy movement is suggested to bring together relevant actors from local communities, government, international agencies, NGOs and academia. Adaptation and mitigation measures should support local government and communities to understand the implications of climate change; consider climate change in all governance actions; and introduce accountability mechanisms to monitor progress.
WHO. (2012). Mainstreaming gender in health adaptation to climate change programmes. Geneva: WHO.
This guide identifies the gender dimensions of health and climate change, and provides recommendations for how gender can be mainstreamed into health adaptation to climate change programmes. It suggests two approaches: a gender analysis; and a checklist for gender mainstreaming, which includes recommendations for each phase of the programme cycle.
McMichael, A., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Corvalán, Ebi, K., Githeko, A., Scheraga, J., & Woodward, A. (Eds.). (2003). Climate change and human health: Risks and responses. Geneva: WHO.
This paper draws on mixed-method evidence to identify a wide range of climate change impacts on health. Among these are increased mortality due to temperature change and natural disasters, and changes in the dispersal and rate of vector-borne disease. Recommendations include basing adaptation approaches on appropriate technologies, information, finance and institutional capacity; and better quantitative data to help target adaptation.
Water
Effects of climate change on fresh water resources
There is abundant evidence that freshwater resources will be affected by climate change, and concern that these impacts will harm societies and ecosystems, and subsequently social and economic development (Bates et al., 2008; Calow et al., 2011; UN Water, n. d.). Observed and projected impacts will increase food insecurity and vulnerability among people living in arid and semi-arid areas in particular (Bates et al., 2008). Populations whose livelihoods depend on water ecosystems, such as fishing communities, will face growing challenges (see Coastal zones below). Higher and fluctuating temperatures are likely to reduce water quality (Bates et al., 2008; Calow et al., 2011), which will affect human health and ecosystems, and will probably lead to an increase in water-borne disease (Calow et al., 2011). Economic implications will include higher costs for existing water infrastructure and management practices such as flood defences, and irrigation and sanitation systems (Bates et al., 2008; Mogaka et al., 2006; FAO, 2013, Module 3).
Water scarcity may also worsen the existing stresses of population growth and urbanisation (Bates et al., 2008; Calow et al., 2011). Questions of equity and access therefore become critical issues (Calow et al., 2008). For example, for women and girls, water scarcity means having to spend more time and travel further to collect water, which reduces their productive work and economic opportunities (IFAD, 2007). Accordingly, some experts emphasise the importance of recognising resource access and entitlement issues in designing climate change adaption and mitigation measures.
Bates, B. C., Kundzewicz, Z. W., Wu, S., & Palutikof, J. P. (Eds.). (2008). Climate change and water. Technical paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva: IPCC Secretariat.
Observational records and climate projections provide abundant evidence that freshwater resources are vulnerable and may be significantly affected by climate change. Such impacts will have wide-ranging consequences for societies and ecosystems. This paper presents an overview of IPCC research on water, highlighting the strong likelihood of increased variability and extremes, areas of uncertainty, and regionally-differentiated impacts. Negative impacts of climate change on freshwater systems are expected to outweigh the benefits. Adaptation strategies need to integrate demand- and supply-side action, designed in the context of wider development, environment and health policies.
Mogaka, H., Gichere, S., Davis, R., & Hirji, R. (2006). Climate variability and water resources degradation in Kenya: Improving water resources development and management (World Bank Working Paper No. 69). Washington, DC: World Bank.
This report focuses on the economic implications of water resource management in Kenya (and Africa more widely), highlighting the effects of climate variability and the steady degradation of water resources. Both processes have significant economic impacts over the long term. Increased investment in infrastructure and better management of water resources are advocated to reduce costs.
Calow, R., Bonsor, H., Jones, L., O’Meally, S., MacDonald, A., & Kaur, N. (2011). Climate change, water resources and WASH: A scoping study. London: ODI.
This report reviews the literature on current understanding of climate change projections and scenarios, and discusses the implications for water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia. Water scarcity is not environmentally determined, but driven by questions of equity and access; demographic change will be a more important driver of water scarcity than climate change in SSA until at least 2050. Refocusing the debate on water security offers a way forward, emphasising the importance of resource access and entitlements as well as water availability.
IFAD. (2007). Gender and water. Securing water for improved rural livelihoods: The multiple-use system approach. Rome: IFAD.
How can women participate in water management? This review examines the impact of water-related projects on women, women’s role in managing water resources, and constraints women face in gaining access to water. Lessons in promoting women’s participation in decision-making from IFAD-supported water projects include: enhancing women’s access to financial services by allocating a minimum quota of loans for women; and enhancing women’s capacity through training in income-generation activities, irrigation methods, and water conservation. Approaches to mainstream gender in water management include gender-sensitive project design and targeting, sex-disaggregated data collection and analysis, gender-sensitive indicators, and gender-responsive budgets.
Mitigation and adaptation in the water sector
Experts suggest that water management practices should be made more robust by incorporating improved information systems about climate variability, adjusting and re-engineering systems, modifying demand, and introducing new technology (Bates et al., 2008; UN Water, n. d.; World Water Assessment Programme, 2009). Others urge donors to climate-screen WASH and resource management strategies and to climate-proof interventions, maximising climate change mainstreaming at different levels. They also advise giving project managers guidance on how to minimise risk (Calow et al., 2008; FAO, 2013, Module 3). Evidence suggests that effective mitigation to improve water-use efficiency requires both demand- and supply-side strategies, for example, using economic incentives through metering, combined with increased water storage (Bates et al., 2008).
Because climate change impacts on water affect many policy areas (e.g. health, energy, agriculture and livelihoods), experts recommend that adaptation and mitigation options should incorporate a wide spectrum of water-dependent sectors (Bates et al., 2008; FAO, 2013, Module 3). Experts also argue that water adaptation should be addressed within the broader development context, focusing on challenges for poverty reduction, hunger, disease and environmental degradation (UN Water, n. d.).
Lessons from community-level adaptation projects include: build on existing coping strategies; adopt wide-ranging communication strategies; harness local and national support; and include broad-based livelihood improvement (Calow et al., 2008). Women can play a central role in the provision, management and safeguarding of water in developing countries (IFAD, 2007).
World Water Assessment Programme. (2009). Water in a changing world. World water development report. UNESCO/Earthscan.
This report analyses the state of the world’s freshwater resources. Human activities have become primary drivers of the pressures affecting water systems. Important decisions affecting water management are made outside the water sector and are driven by external, largely unpredictable forces including demography, climate change, and technological innovation. Decision-making in other development sectors – such as food, energy, disaster management and climate change – should incorporate water as an integral component. Investment in improved water resource management can prevent losses from droughts and floods, and build resilience to climate variability.
UN Water. (n. d.). Climate change adaptation: The pivotal role of water. UN Water.
Water is the primary medium through which climate change influences ecosystems and societies. This policy brief notes that water stress is already high in many developing countries, and argues that adaptation must be addressed in a broad development context. Five broad approaches are outlined: new investment, adjusting existing practices, re-engineering existing systems, modifying demand, and introducing new technology. Countries are urged to improve their water resource management systems and implement ‘no regrets’ strategies ‒ measures that provide development benefits now, as well as strengthening resilience to climate change.
Energy
What role does low carbon energy play in social development?
Energy affects all aspects of development from livelihoods and education to health and gender equality. Energy is central to both sustainable development and poverty reduction efforts. Affordable energy access is a prerequisite for poverty reduction and economic growth, and also plays a crucial role in climate change mitigation and adaptation (Mearns & Norton, 2010; FAO, 2013). Sustainable forest management can contribute significantly to climate change adaptation and mitigation, but there are trade-offs to consider in mainstreaming adaptation and mitigation actions in the forest sector (FAO, 2013). Renewable technologies, such as solar, ocean and wind energy, can help mitigate the effects of GHC emissions, although challenges remain. The UN advocates Sustainable Energy for All (UN-SEA) by 2030 and calls for partnerships among government, businesses and civil society to ensure universal access to modern energy services (Sustainable Energy for All, 2012).
Sustainable Energy for All. (2012). Sustainable Energy for All: A global action agenda – Pathways for concerted action toward sustainable energy for all. New York: UN.
How can the UN’s goal of Sustainable Energy for All by 2030 be achieved? This report, based on the work of technical task groups, sets out an agenda for action to meet the three objectives of ensuring universal access to modern energy services, doubling the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency, and doubling the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. Recommendations cover eleven action areas, including power generation, industry and agriculture, and transport. Sustainable development is not possible without sustainable energy; achieving both requires new partnerships among governments, businesses, and civil society.
FAO. (2013). Climate-smart forestry. In Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook (Module 9). Rome: FAO.
This module provides a brief list of key messages for mainstreaming climate adaptation and mitigation measures into the forest sector. Highlights include: analysing costs and benefits for livelihoods and national development; tailoring interventions to local context, with attention to equity, gender issues and local institutions; designing interventions to target the most vulnerable; examining benefits of forest and tree ecosystems; examining forest tenure issues; and involving indigenous peoples in climate change adaption and mitigation activities.
Mitigation and adaptation opportunities
Access to clean, reliable and affordable energy technologies affects sustainable development initiatives and provides a wide range of development opportunities, including improved health outcomes and employment (Pachauri et al., 2013). Evidence has identified a positive relationship between access to electricity and non-income benefits, such as education and health, and less clear connections between energy consumption and economic growth (Pueyo et al., 2013).
Women and girls, who tend to be responsible for household energy, can particularly benefit from more efficient energy systems. These allow women and girls to spend more time on education and labour market participation, and help empower them to become key actors for mitigation actions (Pachauri et al., 2013). Case studies show how climate-related financing has been used to promote energy access and support the economic and social empowerment of women (Karlsson & Rojas, 2013; Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, 2012). The Garmeen Shakti programme in Bangladesh, for example, trains women to install and maintain Solar Home Systems (SHS) and improved cook stoves. In addition to reducing GHG emissions and addressing energy deficits, the programme provides job creation for women and clean technology for improved health outcomes. Similarly, Solar Sister, based in Uganda and Rwanda, provides women with education, training and support to create micro-businesses selling solar-powered lamps and phone chargers to provide household income and address energy poverty.
Pachauri, S., Scott, A., Scott, L., & Sheperd, A. (2013). Energy for all: Harnessing the power of energy access for chronic poverty reduction. London: Chronic Poverty Advisory Network.
Energy poverty strongly correlates with income poverty, and is most acute in the poorest households in rural areas. This guide argues that access to electricity, combined with assets, can help people escape persistent poverty. Complementary interventions, coordination, and inter-sectoral collaboration are recommended to maximise the poverty reduction potential of energy services.
ESMAP. (n. d.). Innovative approaches to energy access for the urban poor: Summaries of best practices from case studies in four countries. Washington, DC: ESMAP.
Drawing from four case studies, this paper provides an overview of approaches to increasing energy access among the urban poor. Barriers to access include: cost; the illegal and temporary status of some housing; lack of education and awareness; and a lack of trust between communities and service providers. Innovative technologies are recommended, as well as providing credible evidence to inform policy, and establishing effective financial and institutional financing mechanisms.
Karlsson, G., & Rojas, A. (2013). The benefits of gender balance in climate change mitigation investments and sustainable energy initiatives. Leusden, The Netherlands: ENERGIA.
This report uses examples from Bangladesh, Kenya, Nepal and Tanzania to illustrate practical ways in which climate-related financing can help promote energy access for all, and therefore support the social and economic empowerment of women and gender equality. Lessons on gender mainstreaming need to be applied to new funding streams such as the UN’s Sustainable Energy for All initiative, and the UNFCCC’s Green Climate Fund. Additional efforts are needed to ensure that women are able to obtain information about and access to climate-related funds, plus the necessary technical training and financing for renewable energy business opportunities.
Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves. (2012). Results report sharing progress on the path to adoption of clean cooking solutions. Washington, DC: Global Alliance for Clean Cook stoves.
What is the current reach of clean cook-stove technology? This report presents data from an online survey of 246 organisations involved in the clean cook-stoves sector, including manufacturers, designers, distributors, and testers. Together they distributed 8.2 million stoves in 59 countries during 2012. Of these, 54% were biomass stoves, while charcoal and (in China) coal stoves are also widely produced. Half of the 2012 stoves were distributed with at least some support from carbon finance, at an average stove offset price of $10. Further investment in standardisation and testing is recommended.
Pueyo, A., Gonzalez, F., Dent, C., & DeMartino, S. (2013). The evidence of benefits for poor people of increased renewable electricity capacity: Literature review. Brighton: IDS.
Does investment in renewable electricity lead to poverty reduction and economic growth? This report presents the results of a systematic review of 143 papers. It sets out a four-stage theory of change linking renewable energy investment with poverty reduction, and assesses the evidence at each stage. Increased investment in generation capacity does not necessarily lead to increased availability and reliability of supply. Financial barriers such as connection charges limit electricity usage by the poor. There is good evidence linking improved access to electricity with non-income benefits such as education, but less evidence for income-related outcomes, and no clear conclusion on the size or causal direction of the link between electricity consumption and economic growth.
Low carbon transport
What role does low carbon transport play in climate mitigation and adaptation?
Low carbon development is essential to reduce adverse effects of climate change, as well as maximise the opportunity to advance to green, sustainable energy, technology and manufacturing (expert comment). Transport is inextricably linked to development and economic growth, and is one of the fastest growing contributors to climate change (ADB, 2010). The bulk of future emissions from the developing world are likely to come from the transport sector, making it a critical sector for climate adaptation and mitigation (Kopp et al., 2013). Given its strong relationship with development, improved transport systems can provide significant co-benefits, such as a reduction in the urban air pollution that affects millions of people (WHO, n. d.).
Transport is also an important sector for adaptation. Climate change has wide-ranging impacts on transportation systems, from structural and material damages to delays and disruption of services. Sustainable transport provides added benefits for women, including better access to economic opportunities, education and health services (Asian Development Bank, 2013).
Kopp, A., Block, R., & Limi, A. (2013). Turning the right corner: Ensuring development through a low-carbon transport sector (Direction in development: Environment and sustainable development). Washington, DC: World Bank.
This report draws on mixed method research and argues that transport is crucial to development; however recognition of the impact of climate on transport has been slow. The urgent need to cut emissions requires a new model for infrastructure and transport services, and institutional change and coordination to integrate supply and demand actions. Climate change widens financing gaps in transport, but current carbon finance is inadequate for transport needs. Better maintenance and management of infrastructure is advocated to reduce vulnerability.
Asian Development Bank. (2013). Gender tool kit: Transport: Maximising the benefits of improved mobility for all. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
This is a guide for mainstreaming gender into the sustainable transport sector. Gender equality provides multiple co-benefits – including improved access to economic opportunities, education and maternal health services – which may lead to better development outcomes.
Mitigation and adaptation opportunities
Given its contribution to emissions and its importance to development, sustainable transport should be a primary component of low-carbon development strategies. Various approaches are advocated in the literature, ranging from transiting to low-carbon fuel sources, to improving vehicle efficiency. Low-carbon mass transit systems and active transport systems are commonly advocated by experts. Studies show they have produced greater co-benefits, particularly for health, than other approaches (Crawford, n. d.; WHO, n. d.). Key considerations for planning transport interventions include affordability, combining technological advancement with behavioural change, and including comprehensive stakeholder consultations.
WHO. (n. d.). Heath in the green economy: Co-benefits to health of climate change mitigation – Transport sector Preliminary findings – Initial review. Geneva: WHO.
This WHO paper reviews the potential health co-benefits of transportation mitigation strategies. Active transport (walking and cycling) and rapid transit/public transport systems can yield greater immediate health co-benefits than improving fuel and vehicle efficiency. Benefits of such approaches range from reduced respiratory and cardiovascular disease from air pollution, to less exposure to traffic injury risks. However, there is a need for more systematic evaluation of mitigation strategies involving transportation and land use.
Crawford, G. (n. d.). Sustainable transport in Colombia: Bogotá and the Transmilenio (Case Study 05). Brighton: IDS/Learning Hub.
This case study identifies the positive role of the Bogotá Transmilenio Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in reducing carbon emissions from transport. In addition to reducing emissions, the transit system provided jobs and improved access and mobility across the city. It also introduced pro-poor structured fares. Affordability remains a key challenge, and there are concerns about whether infrastructure will withstand future climate impacts.
ADB. (2010). Reducing carbon emissions from transport projects (ADB Evaluation Study). Asian Development Bank.
This independent evaluation of ADB projects finds that low-carbon transport strategies can be among the least costly ways to reduce GHG emissions when they: reduce the need to travel; increase the use of low-carbon transport; and improve transport system management by reducing congestion and inefficiency. Low-carbon strategies can produce disproportionate social and economic benefits for people on low incomes, particularly those dependent on walking and public transport.
