Donors support political participation as a means of improving state accountability and responsiveness, and empowering the poor. But have democratisation processes really increased political participation, particularly pro-poor participation? If not, what are the barriers to such participation?
Political participation can involve activities ranging from voting in elections or joining a union, to discussing politics with friends or engaging in community self-help initiatives. This page takes a deliberately broad view; defining participation as all voluntary activities that aim to influence political decisions at all levels of the political system. This includes conformist participatory activities like party membership or electoral campaigning and non-conformist activities, such as strikes and demonstrations.
Page contents
- Political participation
- Voting
- Barriers to participation
- Gender and participation
- Civic education
- Useful websites
Political participation
To what extent has democratisation increased the participation of citizens, particularly the poor, in political decision-making? Are certain forms of political participation likely to generate greater responsiveness than others?
Mechanisms that ensure meaningful participation can enhance the capacity of a government to design appropriate policies and deliver effective and appropriate services. But the nature and outcomes of participation are deeply affected by the political economy and socio-cultural conditions in which participation occurs.
Manor, J., 2004, ‘Democratization with Inclusion: Political Reforms and People’s Empowerment at the Grassroots’, Journal of Human Development, volume 5, issue 1, pp. 5 -29
In recent years, many governments in developing countries have undertaken political reforms to promote the empowerment and inclusion of ordinary people, especially the poor. However, this process has not automatically benefited poor people. This article reviews these reforms and looks at how they can be measured and facilitated.
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Coelho, V.S.P. & von Lieres, B. (2010). Mobilizing for democracy: citizen engagement and the politics of public participation. In: Mobilising for Democracy: Citizen Action and the Politics of Public Participation. V.S.P. Coelho and B. von Lieres (Eds.) Zed Books, London
This introductory chapter provides an overview of a book which introduces eleven original empirical case studies of how different forms of citizen mobilization have generated democratic outcomes in seven countries of the global South. It highlights the limitations of one-size-fits-all approaches to addressing the challenges of building democracy, and it demonstrates how the prospects for achieving democratic outcomes depend on a combination of forms of mobilization and distinctive political and institutional contexts.
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Michels, A., 2011, ‘Innovations in Democratic Governance: How Does Citizen Participation Contribute to a Better Democracy?’, International Review of Administrative Sciences, vol. 77, no. 2 pp. 275-293
This study examines citizen participation in various Western countries. It shows that citizen involvement produces a number of benefits, which vary according to the type of democratic innovation. However, since these positive effects are perceptible only to those taking part, and the number of participants is often small, the benefits to individual democratic citizenship are far more conclusive than the benefits to democracy as a whole.
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Taylor, M., 2011, ‘Strengthening the Voice of the Poor: Faith-Based Organizations’ Engagement in Policy Consultation Processes in Nigeria and Tanzania’, Working Paper 61, Religions and Development Research Programme, University of Birmingham
This paper reports on pilot projects in Nigeria and Tanzania that tested the potential for religious organisations to engage collaboratively in policy consultation processes. The cases showed that Faith-Based Organisations can cooperate across religious and denominational divides to assemble grassroots data on issues central to Poverty Reduction Strategy Processes (and their successors), analyse findings and present them to government. They demonstrate that similar projects could be implemented more widely. Positive influences on policy depend, among other things, on the power relations within religious organisations and between faith communities and the state.
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Toolkit
OECD, 2001, ‘Citizens as Partners; OECD Handbook on Information, Consultation and Public Participation in Policy Making’, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris
This OECD Handbook explores the background, pressure and objectives for governments seeking to become engaged in informing, consulting and engaging citizens in policy-making. It presents an overview of current state-of-the-art practices in this area, focussing particularly on the potential of information and communication technology (ICT) as a tool to achieve this.
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Further resources
- ‘Strengthening voice and participation’ in the GSDRC’s Voice, Empowerment and Accountability Topic Guide
- IDS/Ford Foundation Research on ‘Participation and National Policy’: These case studies asked under what conditions citizen engagement with the state contributes to the formation and implementation of national level policies, which have a positive impact on the lives of poor and excluded people.
Voting
The following resources specifically consider the issue of voting, and the socio-economic and political factors associated with electoral participation and the ability of citizens to hold governments to account.
Resnick, D. & Casale, D. (2014) Young populations in young democracies: generational voting behaviour in sub-Saharan Africa. Democratization. 21(6): 1172-1194
Why do young Africans participate less in elections than their older counterparts? Given Africa’s growing youth bulge, this constituency represents a numerically important voting bloc, and their lower participation in elections could undermine the legitimacy of the region’s democratic trajectory. This paper finds that key determinants of the youth’s voting behaviour include their access to political knowledge and information as well as their perceptions of the electoral context and party system. In the latter regard, the efficacy and fairness of elections and the degree of partisanship increase the youth’s decision to vote, while the length of party incumbency is a deterrent to turnout.
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Bratton, M.Bhavnani, R. & Tse-Hsin, C. (2012) Voting intentions in Africa: ethnic, economic or partisan? Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. 50(1): 27-52
This paper offers a comprehensive account of popular voting intentions in Africa’s new electoral democracies. With reference to aggregate and survey data from 16 countries, it shows that competitive elections in Africa are more than mere ethnic censuses or simple economic referenda. Instead, Africans engage in both ethnic and economic voting. Not surprisingly, people who belong to the ethnic group in power intend to support the ruling party, in contrast to those who feel a sense of discrimination against their cultural group. But, to an even greater extent, would-be voters in Africa consider policy performance, especially the government’s perceived handling of unemployment, inflation, and income distribution. Moreover, a full account of the intended vote choice in Africa also requires recognition that citizens are motivated – sincerely or strategically – by partisan considerations; they vote for established ruling parties because they expect that incumbents will win.
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Bratton, M., and Logan, C., 2006, ‘Voters but not yet Citizens: The Weak Demand for Vertical Accountability in Africa’s Unclaimed Democracies’, Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 63, Cape Town
Why has democracy failed to secure better governance and accountability in Africa? This article from Afrobarometer finds that how Africans understand their own roles and responsibilities for securing vertical democratic accountability – between leaders and the public – is important. Democracy in Africa remains unclaimed by ‘voters’ who have embraced multiparty elections but failed to grasp their rights as ‘citizens’ – notably to regularly demand accountability from leaders.
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Young, D., 2009, ‘Is Clientelism at Work in African Elections? A Study of Voting Behaviour in Kenya and Zambia’, Working Paper no. 106, Afrobarometer
Does clientelism play a major role in the voting decisions of African elections? Which factors are most important to African voters when choosing a candidate to vote for? This Afrobarometer working paper argues that clientelism is not a major factor in voting decisions. Instead, voters focus on issues relating to the provision of local public goods and the frequency of an MP’s visits to the constituency.
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Barriers to participation
There are many barriers to political participation for the poor, including illiteracy, institutionalised sexism and lack of time. It is essential that development practitioners are realistic about the level of participation that is practically possible for poor communities and that participation projects are designed taking potential barriers into account.
Golooba-Mutebi, F., 2004, ‘Reassessing Popular Participation in Uganda’, Public Administration and Development, vol. 24, no. 4 , pp. 289-304
Is participation a sustainable tool for promoting good governance in developing countries? To what extent should the political history and the socio-cultural context be taken into account in efforts to promote participation? This article by the University of the Witwatersrand is an account of the evolution of village councils and popular participation in Uganda. It questions the feasibility and utility of popular participation as an administrative and policymaking device.
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Putzel, J., 2004, ‘The Politics of ‘Participation: Civil Society, the State and Development Assistance’, Crisis States Discussion Paper no. 1, Development Studies Institute, London
What kind of participation may promote poverty reduction? What should donor attitudes be concerning the promotion of ‘participation’ and ‘participatory processes’ of decision-making? This paper by the London School of Economics suggests that discussions about promoting participation must start from, and engage with, the realities of how and where ordinary and poor people actually are organised.
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Denhardt, J., et al., 2009, ‘Barriers to Citizen Engagement in Developing Countries’, International Journal of Public Administration, vol. 32, no. 14, pp. 1268-1288
This paper consider the impact on developing nations of external incentives; the absence of democratic culture and civil society; profound poverty; time pressures and demands for immediate results; and the lack of an institutional infrastructure. Existing international aid programs may, in some instances, actually work to thwart citizen engagement efforts. The paper suggests how a realistic recognition of the barriers to citizen engagement in developing countries can inform international efforts to foster democratic governance.
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Gender and participation
How well are women’s interests represented through political institutions? What can be done to increase women’s participation? The following resources examine barriers to the participation of women in formal and informal political systems. They also look at mechanisms for and outcomes of increasing such participation.
Tadros, M., 2011, ‘Women Engaging Politically: Beyond Magic Bullets and Motorways’, Pathways Policy Paper, Pathways of Women’s Empowerment RPC, Brighton: IDS
This paper draws on over eight country case studies to analyse the possibilities and limitations of mainstream approaches, such as quotas, to strengthening women’s access to political power. It finds that any quota law needs to be complemented by other interventions to ensure that it has a positive social transformative impact. Further, concepts of and support for women’s political empowerment need to be based more on women’s ongoing networks of support and influence and less on pre-election moments or international ‘blueprints’.
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Cornwall, A. and Goetz, A. M., 2005, ‘Democratising Democracy: Feminist Perspectives’, Democratization, Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 783-800
Increasing numbers of women have gained entry to formal political spaces. To what extent has this translated into their political influence, or into gains in policies that redress gendered inequities and inequalities? This article, from Democratization, explores the factors that affect and enable women’s political effectiveness in different democratic arenas. It argues that women’s political interests are not necessarily influenced by sex, but by their “political apprenticeship”, or pathway into politics. To enhance the potential of women’s political participation, democracy itself must be democratized; including building new pathways into politics.
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Hicks, J., 2011, ‘Strengthening Women’s Participation in Local Governance: Lessons and Strategies’, Community Development Journal, vol. 46, no. S1, pp.36-50
To what extent do South Africa’s municipal participation mechanisms enable meaningful engagement in development planning and local governance by poor or marginalised women? What interventions or alternative approaches are required? This article finds a disconnect between women’s experience and knowledge and state policy and programmatic responses. It proposes two, formally linked, strategies to address this problem: 1) the creation of women-only forums, supported by training, to enable women to develop recommendations; and 2) the input of those recommendations into formal participation structures and processes.
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Amer, M., 2009, ‘Political Awareness and its Implications on Participatory Behaviour: A Study of Naga Women Voters in Nagaland’, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 16, pp.359-374
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Fleschenberg, A., 2009, ‘Afghanistan’s Parliament in the Making: Gendered Understandings and Practices of Politics in a Transitional Country’, Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung, Berlin and UNIFEM
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Tadros, M., 2011, ‘Working Politically Behind Red Lines: Structure and agency in a comparative study of women’s coalitions in Egypt and Jordan’, Developmental Leadership Program
How can the international community advance gender equality in socially conservative contexts through effective support to women’s coalitions? This report looks at how six collective initiatives in Egypt and Jordan have formed and worked politically to advance gender equality. It argues that engaging in informal ‘backstage’ politics is as important as formal channels of engagement in these ‘closed’ political spaces. The international community plays a critical role in supporting women’s coalitions. Donors have provided some positive support, but there is room for improvement.
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Civic education
Donor enthusiasm to promote political participation has often resulted in ‘civic education’ programmes that aim to enhance citizenship and participation in the recipient country. However, after decades of donor investment in civic education programmes, recent research is showing mixed results.
Kahne, J., Lee N-J. and Feezell, J. T. (2012). Digital media literacy education and online civic and political participation. International Journal of Communication, 6, pp. 1-24
Can media literacy education promote and improve youth engagement in civic and political life? This quantitative study finds that exposure to media literacy education is not strongly related to demographic variables. However, it finds that digital media literacy education is associated with increased online political engagement and increased exposure to different perspectives.
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Manning, N. and Edwards, K. (2014). Does civic education for young people increase political participation? A systematic review. Educational Review, 66(1), pp. 22-45
This systematic review finds that there is little evidence of civic education having a discernible or direct effect on voting or voter registration/enrolment. It finds some evidence of civic education increasing activities of political expression (e.g. signing a petition).
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Useful websites
- CIVICUS is a world alliance for citizen participation that aims to strengthen citizen action and civil society throughout the world.
- BRIDGE the gender and development research and information service, has a web guide and several resources on gender and participation.
- Pathways of Women’s Empowerment is an international research and communications programme that aims to understand and influence efforts to bring about positive change in women’s lives.
- International Knowledge Network of Women in Politics (iKNOW Politics) is an online workspace designed to serve the needs of elected officials, candidates, political party leaders and members, researchers, students and other practitioners interested in advancing women in politics.
- Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA) is an international centre for learning and promotion of democratic governance. They conduct participatory research and training on civil society, capacity building, voluntary and non-profit sector, governance, rural and urban local bodies, citizenship, gender and related issues.
